Medicine

Brain death Brain death is the irreversible and complete loss of all brain function. This article describes what brain death means, how it is diagnosed, common causes, medical management, and…

Brain injury: types, causes, symptoms, diagnosis and recovery Brain injury Comprehensive overview of brain injury: definitions, major types (traumatic, acquired, congenital), common causes, typical symptoms, diagnosis, treatment approaches, rehabilitation…

Brain Tumors: Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, and Treatment Brain tumor Comprehensive overview of brain tumors: causes and types, signs and symptoms, diagnostic steps (MRI, biopsy), and treatment options — surgery, radiation, chemotherapy and supportiv…

Breast cancer: overview, types, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention Breast cancer Breast cancer is a disease in which breast cells grow abnormally. This article summarizes types, signs, diagnosis, treatment options, risk factors, screening, and public-health imp…

Breast reduction (reduction mammaplasty) Breast reduction Surgical procedure to reduce breast size and weight; used for physical relief and cosmetic reasons. Covers indications, techniques, recovery, risks, and when insurance may cover it…

Bright's disease: historical term for nephritis and proteinuric kidney disorders Bright's disease Bright's disease is a historical label for kidney diseases marked by protein in the urine; modern medicine classifies these conditions by specific causes and pathological patterns.

Bristol stool scale (Bristol stool form scale) Bristol stool scale Seven‑category clinical chart for classifying stool form and consistency. Used to describe bowel transit, aid patient–clinician communication, and support assessment of constipatio…

British Medical Journal (BMJ) — overview, history, and role British Medical Journal The BMJ (British Medical Journal) is a long-established, peer-reviewed general medical journal publishing research, reviews, news and comment for clinicians, researchers and policy…

Bronchiectasis: chronic dilatation and inflammation of the bronchi Bronchiectasis Bronchiectasis is a long-term condition marked by permanent widening of bronchi, recurrent infections and sputum production. Diagnosis relies on imaging and treatment focuses on ai…

Bronchiolitis: causes, symptoms, treatment and differences from bronchitis Bronchiolitis Bronchiolitis is an acute inflammation of the lung’s smallest airways, most often caused by viral infection in infants and young children. Overview, causes, signs, care, prevention…

Bronchitis: causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment and prevention Bronchitis Bronchitis is inflammation of the bronchi causing cough, mucus production and breathing difficulty. It occurs in acute and chronic forms with different causes, management and long‑…

Bronchodilator (airway-opening medications) Bronchodilator Medications or endogenous agents that relax and open the airways, used mainly in asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease to relieve bronchoconstriction and improve airflow…

Bronchopneumonia Bronchopneumonia is an acute, patchy lung infection that begins in the bronchioles and spreads into adjacent air sacs. It most often follows bacterial infection and requires medica…

Bronchoscopy: examination and treatment of the airways Bronchoscopy Bronchoscopy is an endoscopic procedure for visualizing and treating the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. Methods include rigid, flexible fiberoptic and CT virtual bronchoscopy fo…

Bronchospasm: causes, signs, treatment and clinical considerations Bronchospasm Bronchospasm is the sudden constriction of airway smooth muscle causing breathing difficulty. This article explains mechanisms, common triggers, diagnosis, treatment, risks in anes…

Brucellosis: cause, transmission, symptoms, diagnosis and prevention Brucellosis Brucellosis is a bacterial zoonosis caused by Brucella species. It spreads from infected animals to humans, often via unpasteurized dairy or contact, and can cause fever, malaise a…

Bruise (contusion, ecchymosis): causes, symptoms, diagnosis and care Bruise A bruise is blood trapped under the skin after capillary damage. This article explains causes, color changes, differences from other skin bleeding, when to seek help, and home trea…

Bruxism: teeth grinding and jaw clenching Bruxism Bruxism is the habitual grinding of teeth or clenching of jaws, occurring during sleep or wakefulness; it can damage teeth, cause pain and headaches, and requires individualized di…

Bubonic plague A form of plague caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis that infects the lymphatic system; historically linked to major pandemics and still a treatable but serious disease today.

Bulimia nervosa: causes, signs, complications and treatment Bulimia nervosa Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder of recurrent binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise. This entry summarize…

Bupropion: overview, uses, pharmacology, and safety Bupropion Bupropion is an atypical antidepressant and smoking-cessation aid. This article summarizes its actions, formulations, common uses, side effects, and important safety considerations…

Burn (injury): causes, classification, treatment and prevention Burn An overview of burns—skin and soft-tissue injuries caused by heat, chemicals, electricity, cold, friction or radiation—covering types, severity assessment, first aid, medical care…

Burnout (psychological and other uses) Burnout Burnout is a state of chronic physical and emotional exhaustion commonly linked to work stress; it also refers to other meanings such as tyre burnouts or electrical burnout. Causes…

Bursitis: causes, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment Bursitis Bursitis is inflammation of fluid-filled bursae that cushion muscles, tendons and bones. This article explains anatomy, common sites, causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatments and pr…

Buruli ulcer: cause, clinical features, treatment and public health Buruli ulcer Buruli ulcer is a skin and soft-tissue infection caused by Mycobacterium ulcerans, notable for painless necrotic ulcers and a toxin-driven course; early diagnosis and combined anti…

Surgical bypass (cardiovascular and vascular procedures) Bypass (surgical) A surgical bypass restores blood flow by creating an alternative conduit around a blocked vessel. Used in coronary and peripheral artery disease, it involves grafts, techniques, ri…

Caffeine — natural stimulant in coffee, tea and other plants Caffeine Caffeine is a natural methylxanthine stimulant widely consumed in beverages and foods. This article explains its properties, sources, effects, uses, risks and notable facts in a co…

CAGE questionnaire: brief screening tool for problematic alcohol use CAGE questionnaire A short, four-question screening instrument used to detect potential alcohol problems. Widely used in clinical and self-assessment settings; positive responses prompt further evalu…

Calcaneus (heel bone) Calcaneus The calcaneus is the largest tarsal bone forming the heel. It transmits weight, anchors the Achilles tendon and plantar fascia, and is important in gait. Anatomy, function and clin…

Cancer: Causes, Development, Types, and Treatments Cancer Comprehensive overview of cancer: how it develops, common forms, metastasis, diagnosis, treatment approaches, prevention, and the role of oncology in research and care.

Cancer of unknown primary origin (CUP) Cancer of unknown primary origin Overview of cancer of unknown primary (CUP): definition, diagnosis, typical clinical features, diagnostic tools, management approaches, prognosis, and distinctions from known-prima…

Candida albicans: biology, clinical importance, and management Candida albicans Candida albicans is a common yeast that lives on mucous membranes and skin and can cause superficial and systemic infections; this article covers its biology, detection, treatment,…

Candidiasis (Yeast Infection): Causes, Types, Symptoms, and Treatment Candidiasis Candidiasis is a fungal infection caused by Candida species, commonly C. albicans. It ranges from superficial mucosal disease to invasive bloodstream infection; management depends…

Cane (walking aid and walking stick) Cane A cane is a hand-held support used while walking. This article describes its purpose, common materials, parts, types, history, fitting and distinctions from related aids.

Canine distemper Canine distemper is a contagious viral disease of dogs and many carnivores, causing respiratory, gastrointestinal and neurological signs; prevention relies on vaccination and wildl…

Cannabidiol (CBD): Overview, Uses, and Key Facts Cannabidiol Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-intoxicating phytocannabinoid found in hemp and cannabis. This article summarizes its chemistry, history, common uses, legal context, safety consideratio…

Cannabis drug testing: methods, limits, and legal considerations Cannabis drug testing Overview of how cannabis (THC) is detected in biological specimens, common testing methods, their strengths and limitations, and implications for medical, workplace, sports, and le…

Capsule (pharmaceutical) Capsule A pharmaceutical capsule is a single‑dose drug delivery format in which medication is enclosed in a dissolvable shell. Varieties include hard and soft gelatin or vegetarian shells,…

Carbapenems: broad‑spectrum beta‑lactam antibiotics and clinical challenges Carbapenem Carbapenems are broad‑spectrum beta‑lactam antibiotics valued for activity against many bacteria; they resist many enzymes but face growing carbapenemase-mediated resistance, affec…

Carbon monoxide poisoning: causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention Carbon monoxide poisoning Carbon monoxide poisoning occurs when CO is inhaled and displaces oxygen in the body. This article explains causes, typical signs, diagnosis, urgent treatments, prevention and nota…

Carcinogen: causes, types, classification and public-health importance Carcinogen A carcinogen is any agent that can increase the likelihood of cancer. This article explains types, mechanisms, historical background, classification systems, examples and public-he…

Cardiology: Medicine of the Heart and Circulation Cardiology Cardiology is the medical specialty devoted to diagnosing, treating, and preventing disorders of the heart and blood vessels, including coronary disease, arrhythmias, heart failure…

Cardiomyopathy: types, causes, diagnosis, and treatment Cardiomyopathy Cardiomyopathy describes diseases of the heart muscle that reduce cardiac function. This article explains types, causes, diagnosis, therapies, prognosis, and notable distinctions.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR): overview, techniques, history, and guidance Cardiopulmonary resuscitation CPR is an emergency procedure to maintain circulation and breathing in an unresponsive person. This article explains methods, steps, history, training, and important distinctions f…

Cardiovascular disease: causes, types, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention Cardiovascular disease Comprehensive overview of cardiovascular disease (CVD): definition, major forms, risk factors, diagnosis and common treatments, prevention strategies, historical context, and impor…

Caregiver (Carer): Roles, Types, and Importance Caregiver A caregiver (carer) provides daily help to people who cannot fully care for themselves. This article explains roles, common settings, history, and distinctions between informal and…

Carotid artery Paired major arteries in the neck that supply oxygenated blood to the head and brain; important in physiology, clinical diagnosis, and vascular surgery.

Carpal Tunnel Syndrome: causes, symptoms, diagnosis and management Carpal tunnel syndrome Overview of carpal tunnel syndrome: how it develops, common symptoms, diagnostic methods, treatment options, prevention and prognosis for wrist median nerve compression.