History

Mali Empire: West African state of the Niger bend and its cultural legacy Mali Empire Medieval West African polity centered on the Niger River valley (traditionally c. 1235–1645). Noted for wealth, trade in gold and salt, Islamic scholarship at Timbuktu, Sudano-Sahe…

Mamluk: Slave Soldiers Who Became Rulers in the Medieval Islamic World Mamluk Mamluks were slave soldiers who formed a powerful military caste and ruling elite in Egypt and other Muslim states from the medieval period until the early 19th century.

Mamluk (Slave) dynasty of Delhi (1206–1290) Mamluk dynasty (Delhi) First ruling house of the Delhi Sultanate, founded by Qutb al-Din Aibak. A dynasty of former slave-soldiers that established Muslim rule and administrative patterns in northern Ind…

Man'en (万延) — Japanese era name, 1860–1861 Man'en Man'en (万延) was a short Japanese era from March 1860 to February 1861 under Emperor Kōmei, occurring during rising domestic unrest and the early years of Japan's opening to foreign…

Manchukuo: Japanese puppet state in Northeast China (1932–1945) Manchukuo Manchukuo was a Japanese-controlled polity in Manchuria and parts of Inner Mongolia from 1932 to 1945, nominally headed by the last Qing emperor Puyi and remembered for its short-l…

Manji (era) — Japanese era 1658–1661 Manji (era) Manji was a Japanese era name from July 1658 to April 1661, during the reign of Emperor Go-Sai in the mid-Edo period, between the Meireki and Kanbun eras.

Manju (era, 1024–1028) Manju (era) Manju (万寿) was a Japanese era name (nengō) from July 1024 to July 1028, during the Heian period under Emperor Go-Ichijō. It followed Jian and preceded Chōgen and reflects court pra…

Maratha dynasty (Maratha Empire) Maratha dynasty A concise but comprehensive overview of the Maratha dynasty: origins, institutions, expansion under Shivaji and the Peshwas, military and administrative features, decline, and last…

Maratha Empire Large Indian power that rose in the 17th century under Shivaji, expanded into an 18th-century confederacy, and played a central role in ending Mughal control before succumbing to B…

Marcus Claudius Tacitus (Roman emperor, 275–276 AD) Marcus Claudius Tacitus Overview of Marcus Claudius Tacitus, who ruled briefly as Roman emperor in 275–276 AD: origins, accession after Aurelian, short policies and campaigns, death, and historical assess…

Maurya Empire (c. 322–185 BCE) Maurya Empire An ancient Indian imperial state founded by Chandragupta Maurya; notable for centralised administration, Ashoka's rule and edicts, the spread of Buddhism, and lasting influence on…

Maya civilization: history, culture, and legacy Mayan civilization Ancient Mesoamerican civilization noted for hieroglyphic writing, mathematics, monumental architecture, calendars, trade networks, and living descendants across southern Mexico and…

Medes: Ancient Iranian People and the Median Kingdom Medes The Medes were an Iranian-speaking people who settled in northwestern Iran and established the Median kingdom in the early 1st millennium BC. They played a key role in the fall of…

Medical Renaissance: Rebirth of Anatomy and the Foundations of Modern Medicine Medical Renaissance The Medical Renaissance (c.1400–1700) was a European renewal of anatomy, physiology and clinical observation that challenged ancient authorities and led to lasting medical advances…

Meiji period (1868–1912): Japan's transformation from feudal state to modern nation Meiji period The Meiji period (1868–1912) was a transformative era in Japan when the Meiji emperor and new government modernized politics, economy, society, and armed forces, launching Japan in…

Meiō (Japanese era, 1492–1501) Meiō Meiō was a Japanese era name from July 1492 to February 1501 in the late Muromachi period, spanning the reigns of emperors Go‑Tsuchimikado and Go‑Kashiwabara and reflecting politic…

Meireki era (1655–1658): overview and the Great Fire of Meireki Meireki Meireki (1655–1658) was a Japanese era in early Edo Japan. Noted for the catastrophic Great Fire of Meireki (1657) and subsequent urban rebuilding under Tokugawa rule.

Meitoku (Japanese era name, 1390–1394) Meitoku Meitoku was the Northern Court era name from March 1390 to July 1394 during the Nanboku-chō period; it spans the reunification of the courts and the transition to the Ōei era.

Meiwa (Japanese era, 1764–1772) Meiwa Meiwa (明和, "Radiant Harmony") was a Japanese era name from June 1764 to November 1772, spanning the late Edo period and the reigns of Empress Go-Sakuramachi and Emperor Go-Momozono…

Mekh — alleged Predynastic ruler of Lower Egypt Mekh Mekh is an obscure name recorded on the Palermo Stone as a Predynastic ruler of Lower Egypt. No archaeological traces corroborate the entry, so scholars treat Mekh as uncertain or…

Merovingian dynasty Early medieval Frankish dynasty that ruled much of Gaul from the 5th to 8th centuries; known for long-haired kings, Salian origins, conversion under Clovis, and eventual replacemen…

Chronology of Mesoamerica Mesoamerican chronology Framework used by archaeologists and historians to divide the prehistoric and early historic eras of Mesoamerica into recognizable periods from the first inhabitants to the Colonia…

Mexican Revolution (c. 1910–1920): origins, course, and legacy Mexican Revolution A concise overview of the Mexican Revolution, its causes, principal factions and leaders, major phases from the fall of the Porfiriato to postwar reform, and its long-term impact o…

Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821) Mexican War of Independence Prolonged conflict in New Spain that ended Spanish rule and led to the formation of independent Mexico; involved diverse social groups, regional campaigns, the Plan of Iguala and l…

Middle Ages (Medieval Europe): Overview, Society, and Legacy Middle Ages A comprehensive overview of the Middle Ages in Europe: chronology, social structure, culture, politics, and lasting influence from c. 476 to c. 1492.

Middle Chinese: phonology, sources, and historical significance Middle Chinese A concise guide to Middle Chinese: its phonological system, primary sources, periods, and its role in reconstructing earlier and later Chinese varieties.

Middle English: the medieval stage of the English language Middle English English used in England after the 1066 Norman conquest until the late 15th century; marked by French influence, changing grammar and pronunciation, diverse dialects, and major lite…

Middle High German (circa 1050–1350) Middle High German Medieval stage of the German language used in Central Europe between about 1050 and 1350; notable for literary works, phonological changes, and its place between Old High German an…

Middle Kingdom of Egypt: reunification, administration, and cultural renewal Middle Kingdom of Egypt The Middle Kingdom of ancient Egypt (c. 2030–1640 BC) marks a reunified state, administrative reform, artistic revival and overseas contacts, spanning the 11th to parts of the 13th…

Middle Low German Medieval West Germanic vernacular spoken in northern Germany and around the Baltic; lingua franca of Hanseatic commerce, influential on Scandinavian languages and preserved in lega…

Middle Persian (Pahlavi): Sassanian-era southwestern Iranian language Middle Persian Middle Persian (Pahlavi or Pārsik) was the prestige southwestern Iranian language of the Sassanian period. It links Old Iranian speech to Modern Persian and survives in religious,…

Migration Period (Late Antiquity): movements, causes, and consequences Migration Period The Migration Period (c. 4th–6th centuries) describes major movements of peoples across Europe that contributed to the end of Roman rule in the West and the formation of early medi…

Millennium (period of one thousand years) Millennium A millennium is a span of 1,000 years. This article explains its definition, linguistic origin, calendar counting issues, historical examples, uses in culture and policy, and how i…

Ming dynasty (1368–1644): Chinese imperial dynasty and cultural era Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644. Known for restored Han Chinese rule, a strong central bureaucracy, maritime voyages, the Forbidden City, and celebrated porcelain fr…

Minoan Civilization of Bronze Age Crete Minoan civilization Ancient Bronze Age culture centered on Crete (c. 3000–1450 BC), noted for palace complexes, maritime trade, vibrant frescoes, goddess-centered religion, early writings (Linear A) a…

Missouri Territory (1812–1821) Missouri Territory A U.S. organized territory formed in 1812 from the old Louisiana Territory; its settlement, politics, and division led to Missouri statehood in 1821 and influenced the Missouri Com…

Mitanni: Hurrian Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age Mitanni Mitanni was a Hurrian-ruled state in northern Mesopotamia and Syria around the mid–2nd millennium BC, notable for its chariot culture, diplomatic ties with Egypt and the Hittites,…

Modern history: origins, defining features and global development Modern history Survey of modern history from the late 15th century to the present, outlining common periodizations, key turning points, major transformations, regional variations and ongoing hist…

Modern Times: the Concept, History, and Cultural Uses Modern Times An overview of the phrase 'Modern Times' as a historical period, a condition of modernity, and a recurring cultural title, including key characteristics, development, and distincti…

Moldavia: historical principality and region of Eastern Europe Moldavia Moldavia is a historical region and former principality in Eastern Europe. From the 14th century to 1859 it shaped Romanian identity, later divided among Romania, the modern state…

Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (Nazi–Soviet Non‑Aggression Pact) Molotov-Ribbentrop pact A 1939 non‑aggression treaty between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany that included a secret protocol dividing parts of Eastern Europe and precipitated the joint invasion of Polan…

Mongol Empire — history, organization, and legacy Mongol Empire 13th–14th century Eurasian empire founded by Genghis Khan that became the largest contiguous land empire, noted for military effectiveness, trade networks, administrative practices…

Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1281) Mongol invasions of Japan Two attempted invasions by Kublai Khan in 1274 and 1281—known in Japan as the Genkō—repelled by samurai resistance and severe storms, with lasting effects on medieval Japanese and…

Moors: medieval Muslim inhabitants of North Africa and Iberia Moors The Moors were medieval Muslim communities—Arab, Berber, and converted Iberians—who lived in the Maghreb, Iberian Peninsula, Sicily and parts of southern France and shaped Al-Andal…

Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship (1786) Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship The 1786 treaty establishing diplomatic and commercial relations between Morocco and the United States, notable for early U.S. recognition and its long-standing legal status.

Mughal dynasty Muslim ruling family of Central Asian origin that established the Mughal Empire in South Asia; noted for centralized administration, monumental architecture, and cultural synthesis…

Mughal Empire: South Asian imperial state (1526–1858) Mughal Empire A major early modern empire in South Asia (c.1526–1858) known for centralized administration, cultural synthesis, monumental architecture and lasting influence on the region’s poli…

Munich Agreement (1938): Cession of the Sudetenland and the Policy of Appeasement Munich Agreement 1938 pact in which Germany, Britain, France and Italy agreed that Czechoslovakia cede the Sudetenland to Germany. Seen as the high point of appeasement and a prelude to further Ger…