History

Muromachi period: Japan under the Ashikaga shogunate (14th–16th centuries) Muromachi period Japanese historical era dominated by the Ashikaga shogunate and rich cultural developments, commonly dated c.1336–1573 (sometimes from 1333). Marked by political decentralization,…

Early Muslim conquests (632–732): expansion of the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphates Muslim conquests A concise account of the early Muslim conquests (632–732), their geographic reach, causes, major campaigns, administration, and long-term cultural and political effects across the…

Nairi (late Bronze Age peoples of the Armenian Highlands) Nairi Nairi were a group of Late Bronze Age tribes in the Armenian Highlands around Lake Van, known from Near Eastern texts and later associated with the Kingdom of Urartu and Armenian c…

Nanboku-chō period (Northern and Southern Courts, 1336–1392) Nanboku-chō period Japanese era of divided imperial courts (commonly 1336–1392) marked by rival Northern and Southern imperial lines, Ashikaga shogunate power, civil war, and cultural developments in…

Napoleonic era (1799–1815): origins, reforms, wars and legacy Napoleonic era Period of European history dominated by Napoleon Bonaparte (1799–1815), marked by political reform, widespread warfare, and long-lasting legal and institutional changes across the…

Nara period (710–794) Nara period Japanese historical era when the capital was at Nara (Heijō-kyō). A formative age for state institutions, Buddhism, art, and literature that shaped classical Japan.

Nasrid dynasty — Emirate of Granada, last Muslim rulers in Iberia Nasrid The Nasrid dynasty (Banu Nasr) ruled the Emirate of Granada from about 1232 to 1492. They were the last Muslim dynasty in Iberia, noted for the Alhambra, refined arts, irrigated ag…

National Museum of History of Azerbaijan Major history museum in Baku, housed in the former Taghiyev mansion. It preserves Azerbaijan’s past from prehistoric to modern times with archaeological, ethnographic, numismatic a…

Nazi eugenics: ideology, policies, and consequences Nazi eugenics An overview of Nazi eugenics: its ideological roots, main programs (sterilization, euthanasia, racial laws), methods, victims, role in the Holocaust, and its legacy in law and ethi…

Nazi Germany (1933–1945): government, ideology, war, and legacy Nazi Germany Authoritarian German state led by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party from 1933–1945; characterized by totalitarian rule, racist policies, aggressive expansion, World War II and its af…

Nazi salute (Hitler salute) Nazi salute A raised-arm salute used in Nazi Germany as a greeting and political gesture, closely linked to Nazi ideology; historically prescribed for civilians and later controlled in postwar…

Neo-Assyrian Empire: Rise, Institutions, and Legacy Neo-Assyrian Empire The Neo-Assyrian Empire (c. 911–609 BC) was the dominant Iron Age power in Mesopotamia whose military, administrative and cultural innovations shaped later imperial systems.

Neo‑Babylonian Empire (Chaldean Dynasty) — overview and legacy Neo-Babylonian Empire Late Iron Age Mesopotamian state (626–539 BC) centred on Babylon; noted for Nebuchadnezzar II’s building programs, the fall of Assyria, developments in astronomy, and conquest by C…

Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192 AD) Nerva-Antonine dynasty Roman imperial dynasty of seven emperors (Nerva to Commodus) noted for adoptive succession, relative stability, expansion and cultural achievements before the late 2nd-century cris…

Netherlands Antilles at the Olympics Overview of the Netherlands Antilles' participation in the Olympic Movement, its Olympic committee, code changes, historical context and legacy after constitutional changes.

Netherlands during World War II Overview of the German invasion (1940), occupation, persecution and resistance in the Netherlands, the government-in-exile, the Hunger Winter, and liberation by Allied forces in Ma…

New Deal: U.S. programs and reforms under Franklin D. Roosevelt New Deal The New Deal was a set of federal programs, regulatory reforms and relief measures launched by Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s to respond to the Great Depression and reshape Ame…

New Kingdom of Egypt (c. 1570–1070 BC) New Kingdom of Egypt The New Kingdom (c. 1570–1070 BC) was Egypt's imperial century: wealth, monumental building, military expansion into Nubia and the Near East, and major religious developments.

New Netherland: Dutch colony in North America (1614–1674) New Netherland New Netherland was a 17th-century Dutch colony in North America centered on present-day New York, known for the fur trade, diverse settlements and its transfer to English control i…

New Sweden (17th-century Swedish colony in North America) New Sweden New Sweden was a Swedish colony along the Delaware River from 1638 to 1655, centered at Fort Christina (now Wilmington). It shaped settlement patterns, trade, and some local cultur…

Nguyễn dynasty (Vietnam) Nguyễn dynasty The Nguyễn dynasty was the final imperial house of Vietnam, ruling from 1802 to 1945. It centralized administration around Huế, enacted Confucian reforms, and ended under French co…

Nihon Odai Ichiran (Table of the Rulers of Japan) Nihon Odai Ichiran A 17th‑century Japanese chronological table of emperors compiled by the Hayashi school and later translated into French by Isaac Titsingh; a landmark source for premodern Japanese…

Nin'an (Japanese era, 1166–1169) Nin'an Nin'an (仁安) was a Japanese era name from August 1166 to April 1169 during the late Heian period, spanning the reigns of Emperors Rokujō and Takakura and reflecting short-term court…

Niña — the caravel of Columbus's first voyage Niña The Niña was one of three ships on Christopher Columbus's 1492 voyage. A small, fast caravel often recorded as Santa Clara and nicknamed Niña, it played a key role in early transat…

Ninja: historical spies and warriors of Japan Ninja Ninja (shinobi) were covert agents in feudal Japan skilled in espionage, sabotage and irregular warfare; they developed specialized methods, tools, and a distinct cultural legacy f…

Ninji (Japanese era name, 1240–1243) Ninji Ninji (仁治) was a Japanese era name (nengō) from August 1240 to January 1243, spanning the end of Emperor Shijō's reign and the accession of Emperor Go-Saga during the Kamakura peri…

Ninju (Japanese era, 851–854) Ninju Ninju was a Japanese era name (nengō) from April 851 to November 854 during the reign of Emperor Montoku. The name conveys the idea of benevolence and longevity within Heian-period…

Ninna era (885–889): Japanese Heian-period nengō Ninna Ninna era (885–889) was a Heian-period Japanese nengō from Feb 885 to Apr 889, marking the end of Emperor Koko’s reign and the accession of Emperor Uda; concise chronology, context…

Ninpei (1151–1154): a short Japanese era during Emperor Konoe's reign Ninpei Ninpei (仁平, 1151–1154) was a Japanese era name (nengō) during the late Heian period under Emperor Konoe. It followed Kyūan and preceded Kyūju amid rising military influence and cou…

Nizam of Hyderabad: rulers of the Asaf Jahi dynasty and their legacy Nizam of Hyderabad Title held by the Asaf Jahi sovereigns of Hyderabad State from the early 18th century; noted for regional autonomy, cultural patronage, administrative institutions and eventual int…

Nome (ancient Egyptian administrative district) Nome (Egypt) A nome (Greek: Νομός; Egyptian: sepat) was a territorial and administrative district of ancient Egypt, established before the Dynastic period and used for millennia to organize gov…

Norrbotten: historical province in northern Sweden Norrbotten Overview of Norrbotten, a historical Swedish province: geography, climate, history from 1810, cultural and economic highlights, and notable distinctions including its modern coat o…

Northern Court (Japan): Ashikaga-backed claimants during the Nanboku-chō era Northern Court The Northern Court was the Kyoto-based line of imperial claimants backed by the Ashikaga shogunate during the Nanboku-chō (1336–1392) conflict, later eclipsed in legitimacy by the…

Northland State (2008–2009): a short‑lived polity in northern Somalia Northland State Brief encyclopedia entry on Northland State, an ephemeral polity reported around 2008–2009 in the Sool region, with capital at Las Anod, situated between Puntland and Somaliland.

Northumbria — medieval kingdom of northern Britain Northumbria Northumbria was a powerful early medieval Anglian kingdom in northern England and southeast Scotland, noted for its church scholarship, shifting borders, Viking impact, and later i…

Norwegian resistance movement (1940–1945) Norwegian resistance movement The underground and armed struggle by Norwegians against Nazi occupation during World War II, including sabotage, intelligence, civil disobedience and links to the government-in-ex…

Nubia: An Ancient Nile Civilization and Its Legacy Nubia Nubia — the region along the Nile in what is now southern Egypt and northern Sudan — its peoples, kingdoms (Kerma, Kush, Meroë), culture, trade, writing, Christianity and later tra…

Numidia: Ancient Berber Kingdom of North Africa (202–46 BC) Numidia Numidia was an ancient Berber kingdom in present-day Algeria and Tunisia (202–46 BC). It played a key role between Carthage and Rome, famed for its cavalry, rulers like Massinissa…

Ōan: Japanese era of the Northern Court, 1368–1375 Ōan Ōan (応安) was the era name used by the Northern Court during the Nanboku-chō conflicts, spanning February 1368 to February 1375 and overlapping rival Southern Court claimants.

Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945) German occupation of Czechoslovakia from 1938–1945: annexation after Munich, Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, repression and resistance, Operation Anthropoid, wartime experienc…

Ōchō (Japanese era, 1311–1312) Ōchō Ōchō was a short Japanese era name (nengō) that ran from April 1311 to February 1312 during the reign of Emperor Hanazono in the Kamakura period.

October Revolution (1917): Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia October Revolution The October Revolution was the Bolshevik-led uprising in Petrograd that toppled Russia's Provisional Government in November 1917 (October O.S.), leading to the Soviet state and a w…

Ōei — Japanese era name (1394–1428) Ōei Ōei (応永) was a Japanese era name from July 1394 to April 1428, covering the reigns of Emperors Go-Komatsu and Shōkō and a formative period in Muromachi politics, diplomacy, and cul…

Ōhō (応保) — Japanese era name, 1161–1163 Ōhō Ōhō (応保) was a short Japanese era from September 1161 to March 1163 during the reign of Emperor Nijō. It followed Eiryaku and preceded Chōkan within the late Heian period.

Oiran: high-ranking courtesans of Japan’s Edo era Oiran Oiran were elite courtesans in Edo-period Japan known for refined arts, strict etiquette, and elaborate dress. This article explains their status, practices, historical context, de…

Okayama Prefectural Museum — regional history and cultural collections Okayama Prefectural Museum Regional museum in Okayama city housing archaeological finds, historical artifacts, folk crafts and ceramics that document the cultural history of Okayama Prefecture.

Old French (langue d'oïl): early Romance language of northern France Old French Old French, or langue d'oïl, was the Romance speech of northern France and adjacent regions from about 1000–1300, a predecessor of Middle and Modern French with strong Frankish inf…

Old Frisian: a medieval West Germanic language Old Frisian Old Frisian was a West Germanic language spoken in coastal northwest Europe from the medieval period. It is the ancestor of the modern Frisian languages and survives in legal and d…