History

Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878): causes, campaigns and consequences Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) A concise overview of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878: origins in Balkan nationalism and Russian aims, major campaigns in the Balkans and Caucasus, and the diplomatic aftermath…

Rustamid Dynasty (Ibadi Imamate of Tahert) Rustamid An Ibadi Muslim imamate centered at Tahert in present-day Algeria from the late 8th to early 10th century, founded by a family of Persian origin and noted for its religious distinc…

Ryakunin (Japanese era name, 1238–1239) Ryakunin Ryakunin (暦仁) was a brief Japanese era from November 1238 to April 1239 during Emperor Shijō's reign, situated in the Kamakura period and recorded in classical nengō chronology.

Ryakuō era (1338–1342): a Northern Court nengō in the Nanboku-chō period Ryakuō Ryakuō (暦応) was the era name used by the Northern Court in Kyoto from August 1338 to April 1342, during the early Nanboku-chō division when rival courts issued competing nengō.

Ryukyu Kingdom: history, culture, and legacy of the Okinawan realm Ryukyu Kingdom A concise encyclopedia article on the Ryukyu Kingdom: its origins, institutions, trade networks, cultural blending, relationships with China and Japan, and its legacy in modern Oki…

Sachsenhausen concentration camp Sachsenhausen was a Nazi concentration camp near Oranienburg (north of Berlin) operating 1936–1945. It held over 200,000 prisoners, served as a forced-labour and training centre, a…

Sadae: Korean policy of deference in premodern diplomacy Sadae Sadae (Korean: 사대) is a historical Korean diplomatic posture of deference in which a smaller polity acknowledged a more powerful neighbor, most often used to describe Korea’s relat…

Safavid dynasty: Iranian ruling house that founded Shi'a Iran Safavid dynasty Native Iranian dynasty that ruled from the early 16th century, established Twelver Shi'a as the state faith, centralized government, promoted Persian culture and arts, and shaped m…

Saffarid dynasty: rulers of Sistan in the 9th–10th centuries Saffarid dynasty A concise overview of the Saffarid dynasty: origins in Sistan, rise under Ya'qub al‑Saffar, territorial expansion in the late 9th century, administration, and cultural and historic…

Saikō (斉衡) — Japanese era 854–857 Saikō Saikō (斉衡) was a Japanese era name from November 854 to February 857 during the Heian period, covering the reign of Emperor Montoku and marking a short interval between the Ninju a…

Saka: Iranic Nomads of the Eurasian Steppe and Their South Asian Kingdoms Saka Overview of the Sakas — Iranic-speaking nomadic groups of the Eurasian steppe, their migrations, material culture, Indo-Scythian and Western Kshatrapa states in South Asia, and the…

Sakoku: Japan’s early modern policy of controlled contact Sakoku Sakoku refers to the Tokugawa-era system of strictly regulated foreign relations and trade in Japan from the 1630s until the mid-19th century, often described as national seclusion…

El Salvador's Civil War (1979–1992): origins, conflict, and peace accords Salvadoran Civil War Overview of El Salvador's Civil War (1979–1992): causes in deep inequality and repression, key actors (government forces, paramilitaries, FMLN), wartime abuses and displacement, an…

Samanid dynasty: Persianate state of Central Asia (819–999) Samanid dynasty Medieval Persianate dynasty that ruled parts of Greater Iran and Central Asia, noted for reviving New Persian culture, fostering literature, and anchoring Bukhara as an Islamic lea…

Sarasvati River: the ancient river of South Asia Sarasvati River An ancient river celebrated in Vedic literature and linked to the Ghaggar–Hakra paleochannel; its former course, disappearance and cultural importance remain subjects of archaeolog…

Sargon Sargon is a name applied to several ancient Mesopotamian rulers — most notably Sargon of Akkad and Sargon II of Assyria — and is a Hebrew rendering of an Akkadian royal name.

Sassanid Empire: Persia’s Last Pre-Islamic Imperial State (224–651 CE) Sassanid Empire The Sassanid Empire (224–651 CE) was Iran’s last pre-Islamic imperial dynasty. It re-established Persian rule, codified Zoroastrian statecraft, rivalled Rome/Byzantium, and left la…

Savings and Loan Crisis (1980s–1990s) Savings and loan crisis A U.S. banking sector collapse in the 1980s–90s when over 1,000 savings and loan institutions failed; causes included interest‑rate shocks, deregulation, risky investment and fraud…

Saxe‑Altenburg: Ernestine duchy of the House of Wettin Saxe-Altenburg Saxe-Altenburg was one of the Ernestine duchies in Thuringia ruled by the House of Wettin; it existed in various forms from the 17th century until German monarchies ended in 1918 a…

Saxe-Coburg — historic Ernestine duchy in present-day Bavaria Saxe-Coburg Saxe-Coburg was a small Ernestine duchy centered on Coburg in what is now Bavaria, Germany. It existed in various forms between the 16th and 18th centuries and later formed part of…

Saxe-Coburg-Eisenach Short-lived Ernestine duchy within the Holy Roman Empire, existing 1572–1596 and 1633–1638; centered on Coburg and Eisenach, now parts of Bavaria and Thuringia.

Duchy of Saxe‑Coburg‑Saalfeld Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld Former Ernestine duchy in central Germany centered on Coburg and Saalfeld; created in the 18th century and reorganized in the 1820s, precursor of Saxe‑Coburg and Gotha and an ances…

Saxe-Eisenach Saxe-Eisenach was the name given to three separate Ernestine duchies centered on the town of Eisenach in Thuringia. They were small Wettin-ruled states shaped by repeated partition…

Saxe-Hildburghausen: an Ernestine duchy of the House of Wettin Saxe-Hildburghausen Former small duchy in Thuringia ruled by the Ernestine branch of the House of Wettin; centered on Hildburghausen and merged into neighboring Ernestine states in the 19th century.

Duchy of Saxe-Jena Saxe-Jena Short-lived Ernestine duchy centered on the town of Jena. Created in 1672 for Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar and reabsorbed by Saxe-Weimar in 1690; part of the Wettin dynastic partitions…

Sayyid dynasty (Delhi Sultanate, 1414–1451) Sayyid dynasty Short-lived fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate (1414–1451), founded by Khizr Khan. Claimed Sayyid descent, exercised limited control around Delhi, and bridged the Tughlaq and Lo…

Scientific Revolution: origins, major figures, methods, and legacy Scientific revolution The Scientific Revolution (roughly 16th–18th centuries) was a transformative period when observation, experiment and mathematics reshaped natural philosophy into modern science.

Scramble for Africa: European colonization and its legacy (1880s–1914) Scramble for Africa The late‑19th‑century rush by European powers to seize African territory, institutionalize control and exploit resources; causes, key events like the Berlin Conference, major figur…

Scribe: roles, history, and legacy of writing specialists Scribe A scribe was a professional reader and writer who recorded transactions, letters and texts. This article explains their duties, historical development, materials, and how the role…

Scythians: Nomadic Iranic peoples of the Eurasian steppe Scythians The Scythians were Iranic-speaking nomads who dominated the Pontic steppe in the first millennium BCE. Known for mounted archery, distinctive art and kurgan burials, their legacy s…

Sea Peoples: seaborne groups associated with the Late Bronze Age disruptions Sea Peoples A balanced summary of the Sea Peoples — the loosely defined maritime groups linked to coastal destructions around the eastern Mediterranean during the late Bronze Age, their eviden…

Secession in the United States: history, causes, and legal aftermath Secession in the United States Overview of state secession in U.S. history, the 1860–61 Southern secessions and Civil War outbreak, constitutional questions, legal rulings, Reconstruction, and modern implication…

Second Boer War (1899–1902) Second Boer War A late 19th-century conflict in South Africa between the British Empire and the Afrikaans-speaking Boer republics; noted for its guerrilla phase, scorched-earth tactics and civilia…

Second Dynasty of Egypt: rulers, archaeology, and historical significance Second Dynasty of Egypt Egypt's Second Dynasty (c. 2890–2686 BC) in the Early Dynastic Period saw political consolidation, shifts in royal symbolism and limited but important archaeological traces centere…

Second Polish Republic (1918–1939) Second Polish Republic The interwar Polish state re-established after World War I, which consolidated borders in the early 1920s, underwent political change under Józef Piłsudski, and was occupied in 193…

Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) Second Sino-Japanese War A large-scale conflict between the Republic of China and Imperial Japan from 1937 to 1945 that became part of World War II, reshaping modern East Asia and producing immense militar…

Second Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005) Second Sudanese Civil War Prolonged conflict between Sudan’s central government and the Sudan People’s Liberation Army in the south, Nuba Mountains and Blue Nile; ~2 million dead, massive displacement, ende…

Second Triumvirate (Roman Republic, 43–33 BC) Second Triumvirate The political alliance of Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus that took control of Rome after Caesar's assassination, enacted proscriptions, defeated the Liberators and set the stage…

Seigneur: medieval French lord and the seigneurie (feudal lordship) Seigneur Seigneur was the title for a feudal lord in medieval France who held a seigneurie — territorial rights, jurisdiction and dues — a system later used in New France and abolished in 1…

Seleucid Empire: Hellenistic realm across the Near East Seleucid Empire A Hellenistic state founded after Alexander the Great, the Seleucid Empire ruled large parts of the Near East from the late 4th to the mid-1st century BC, shaping politics, trade,…

Seljuk dynasty: origins, empire, culture and legacy Seljuk dynasty Medieval Turkic dynasty that forged the Great Seljuk Empire in the 11th–14th centuries, reshaped Middle Eastern politics, patronized Persian culture and influenced later Turkic sta…

Seljuk Empire — Medieval Turkic-Persian State (11th–12th centuries) Seljuk Empire A medieval Sunni Turkic dynasty and empire (c.1037–1194) that ruled parts of Central Asia, Iran, the Middle East and Anatolia, promoting Persian administration and shaping Islamic…

Semmyō calendar (Semmyō-reki) — Japanese lunisolar system derived from Xuanming li Semmyō calendar Semmyō-reki, also called Semmei-reki or Xuanming li, was a Chinese-derived Japanese lunisolar calendar used from the late 9th century until the late 17th century for official, agri…

Sena dynasty (medieval Bengal) Sena dynasty Hindu dynasty that ruled parts of Bengal in the 11th–12th centuries, known for restoring Brahminical institutions, promoting Sanskrit learning, and ending Pala Buddhist rule before…

Sengoku period — Japan’s Warring States era Sengoku period A turbulent era of near-constant conflict in Japan from the mid-15th to the early 17th century, when regional warlords reshaped politics, society, and culture before national unifi…

Separatist Movements in Pakistan: Causes, History, and Regional Dynamics Separatist movements of Pakistan Overview of Pakistan's separatist movements, their historical roots, major regional campaigns (Baloch, Sindhi, Muhajir, East Pakistan/Bangladesh, Kashmir), causes, and state respon…

Slave Revolts of the Late Roman Republic: The Three Servile Wars (135–71 BC) Servile Wars Overview of the three Servile Wars (c.135–71 BC): major slave uprisings in Sicily and Italy, their causes, leaders from Eunus to Spartacus, and Rome’s military suppression and afte…

Seven Years' War (1756–1763) Seven Years' War A global mid‑18th century conflict between major European powers and their overseas empires, fought in Europe, North America, India and other colonies, reshaping imperial possessio…