History

Penny Red British one‑penny postage stamp first issued in 1841 to succeed the Penny Black; notable for its red colour, Victorian profile design, corner check letters and long use in UK posta…

Period — meanings in language, science, and time Period Overview of the many senses of “period”: punctuation, menstrual cycle, units of time (geologic and everyday), chemistry rows, and periodic phenomena in physics and mathematics.

Persian and Urdu: historical influence, structure and literary traditions Persian and Urdu How Persian shaped Urdu's vocabulary, script and literary forms; origins in medieval South Asia, key grammatical and poetic features, and cultural importance across regions.

Pharaoh: Rulers of Ancient Egypt, Their Role, Symbols and Legacy Pharaoh Pharaohs were the monarchs of ancient Egypt, regarded as divine or semi-divine rulers. This article explains their titles, religious function, crowns and regalia, dynastic history,…

Philippine Revolution (1896–1898) Philippine Revolution An overview of the late 19th-century armed uprising in the Philippines against Spanish colonial rule, its causes, main events, leaders, and legacy including the transition toward i…

Phoenicia: ancient maritime civilization of the Levant Phoenicia Phoenicia was a network of city-states on the eastern Mediterranean shore known for seafaring, trade, the Phoenician alphabet and colonies such as Carthage. It shaped Mediterranean…

Phoney War (September 1939 – May 1940) Phoney War A period of limited offensive action on the Western Front after the 1939 outbreak of World War II, marked by mobilization, naval conflict, propaganda, and a delayed major land camp…

Phrygia: ancient kingdom and culture of central Anatolia Phrygia Phrygia was an Iron Age kingdom in west‑central Anatolia known for its capital Gordion, the legend of King Midas, distinctive art and the Phrygian language, later absorbed into lar…

Piast dynasty (first ruling house of Poland) Piast dynasty The Piast dynasty was the founding royal family of Poland from the 10th century. They unified and Christianized the Polish lands, produced the first kings, and their branches gover…

Picts: peoples of northern and eastern Scotland in late antiquity and the early Middle Ages Picts The Picts were peoples of northern and eastern Scotland known for carved symbol stones, distinctive art and a gradual fusion with Gaelic kingdoms that formed the medieval kingdom o…

Pinta (ship): Caravel of Columbus's 1492 voyage Pinta (ship) The Pinta was one of three ships in Christopher Columbus's 1492 expedition. A small, fast caravel, she played a key role in the Atlantic crossing and is remembered for the first re…

Plague of Athens (430–427 BC) Plague of Athens Major epidemic that struck Athens early in the Peloponnesian War, described by Thucydides; cause remains debated though modern analyses have suggested several candidates.

Plague of Justinian (6th-century pandemic) Plague of Justinian Sixth-century pandemic centered in the Byzantine Empire (541–542), caused by Yersinia pestis; recurring waves followed for centuries and it had major demographic, economic, and pol…

Polans (Polanie): West Slavic tribe of Greater Poland Polans Polans (Polanie) were a West Slavic tribe in the Greater Poland region whose consolidation under the Piast rulers led to the early Polish state; they are distinct from the East Sla…

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth A dual state formed by the Union of Lublin (1569), the Commonwealth combined Poland and Lithuania into a multiethnic, elective monarchy noted for noble liberties, religious plurali…

Polish–Lithuanian union: formation, institutions and legacy Polish–Lithuanian union History and development of the Polish–Lithuanian union from medieval personal unions to the 1569 Commonwealth and the 1791 constitution creating a short-lived unitary state.

Pontic Greek Genocide Systematic persecution, deportation and mass killing of ethnic Greeks from the Pontus region of the Ottoman Empire during World War I and its aftermath; contested estimates and ong…

Pontic Greeks: history, language and culture of the Greeks of Pontus Pontic Greeks Ethnic Greeks whose ancestral homelands are the Pontus region on the southern Black Sea coast; noted for a distinct dialect, traditions, and a history tied to the Empire of Trebizo…

Pope Adrian Overview of the popes named Adrian (Hadrianus), their origins, a list of holders from the 8th to 16th centuries, and notable distinctions such as Adrian IV (the only English pope)…

Pope Callixtus — the three popes named Callixtus Pope Callixtus Overview of the three Roman Catholic popes who used the name Callixtus: Callixtus I (early 3rd century), Callixtus II (12th century) and Callixtus III (15th century), and their his…

Pope John — history, numbering, and notable holders of the name Pope John Overview of popes named John, how the regnal name has been used, numbering irregularities and notable Popes John from antiquity to the modern era.

Pope Paul (I–VI): Overview of the six popes named Paul Pope Paul Concise account of the six popes who adopted the name Paul, their dates, major actions and historical roles from the 8th to the 20th century.

Pope Victor — Popes and antipopes named Victor Pope Victor Overview of the historical popes called Victor, their eras and roles, related controversies, and the antipopes who adopted the name Victor IV.

Pope Victor I Pope Victor I (bishop of Rome c. 189–199) was an early leader traditionally regarded as the first African pope, notable for his role in the Quartodeciman Easter controversy and for…

Portuguese Canadians Canadians of Portuguese ancestry: history of migration, settlement patterns, cultural life, language, institutions and contributions to Canadian society.

Portuguese Empire: maritime trading-post empire of the Age of Discovery Portuguese Empire A concise overview of the Portuguese Empire: its maritime origins in the Age of Discovery, territorial reach across Africa, Asia and the Americas, institutional features, major eve…

Potsdam Declaration (Proclamation Defining Terms for Japanese Surrender) Potsdam Declaration Allied proclamation issued July 26, 1945 demanding Japan's surrender and setting postwar terms, warning of 'prompt and utter destruction' if refusal continued.

Prague Spring (1968): Reform, Invasion, and Aftermath Prague Spring A 1968 Czechoslovak reform movement led by Alexander Dubček that sought “socialism with a human face,” ended by a Warsaw Pact invasion and followed by a period of political normali…

Pre-Columbian era: Indigenous cultures of the Americas before European influence Pre-Columbian era The Pre-Columbian era covers the history and archaeology of Indigenous societies across the Americas prior to major European influence after 1492, including their cultures, achieve…

Prehistoric Britain The history of human presence on the islands of Great Britain before written records, from the earliest occupation around 900,000 years ago to the Roman conquest in AD 43.

Prehistory: the human past before writing Prehistory Prehistory is the span of human existence prior to written records. It is reconstructed from material remains, environmental data, and scientific analyses and ends at different tim…

Primary source A primary source is an original, contemporaneous record or artifact created by someone with direct knowledge. This article explains characteristics, types, history, uses, and how t…

Prince of Asturias Traditional title for the heir to the Spanish throne, created in 1388 for the heir apparent and restored after the 20th-century interruption during Spain's transition to constituti…

Prince of Conti (French noble title) Prince of Conti Hereditary French noble title borne by a cadet branch of the House of Bourbon; a prince du sang with court privileges, territorial associations, and a role in early modern French p…

Prince of Orange (European princely title) Prince of Orange Historic princely title originating in the former Principality of Orange. Long associated with the House of Orange‑Nassau and the Dutch heir, it has been used by several European n…

Prince-elector (Kurfürst) — Electors of the Holy Roman Empire Prince-elector Prince-electors (Kurfürsten) were the high-ranking princes who had the exclusive right to elect the Holy Roman Emperor. This article explains their role, composition, history, and…

Princess of Orange Historic title for women associated with the Prince of Orange: medieval consorts of the Principality, later wives of Dutch heirs, and since 2013 held in her own right by the heir a…

Principality of Arbër (Arbanon/Arbëria) — early medieval Albanian polity Principality of Arbër Early medieval Principality of Arbër (Arbanon/Arbëria), centered on Krujë, c.1190–c.1255. Ruled by the Progon family; limited sources describe its territory, society, and shifting…

Principality of Capua (medieval Lombard state in southern Italy) Principality of Capua A medieval principality centred on Capua in southern Italy (9th–11th centuries). Lombard-ruled until the Norman takeover of 1058, it played a key role in Campanian politics and fro…

Principality of Polotsk Medieval East Slavic principality centered on Polotsk, noted for its regional autonomy within Kievan Rus', trade on the Dvina, distinctive dynasty, cultural achievements and later…

Principality of Transylvania (1571–1711) Semi-independent principality in Eastern Europe (1571–1711), ruled by Hungarian princes under Ottoman suzerainty; notable for religious pluralism, autonomous institutions, and late…

Prohibition in the United States (1920–1933) Prohibition in the United States A concise encyclopedia overview of U.S. Prohibition: origins, laws, enforcement, social and economic effects, rise of illicit trade and organized crime, and repeal with lasting leg…

Provenance: history, meaning, and importance of ownership records Provenance Provenance is the documented history of an object's origin and ownership. It helps authenticate, contextualize, and trace cultural, scientific, and digital items across many fields…

Province of Carolina (1663–1729): a British proprietary colony in North America Province of Carolina British proprietary Province of Carolina (1663–1729), covering lands now in North Carolina, South Carolina, parts of Georgia and Florida; created by royal charter, governed by Lord…

Province of Quebec (1763–1791): British colony in North America Province of Quebec (1763–1791) British colony created after the Seven Years' War. From the Royal Proclamation (1763) to the Constitutional Act (1791), it shaped law, settlement and Anglo‑French relations in what…

Provinces of Japan (historical kuni system) Provinces of Japan Historical provincial divisions of Japan from the 7th century to the Meiji reforms; replaced by prefectures in the 1870s. Overview of structure, history, functions, and cultural le…

Prussia: origins, rise, institutions, and modern legacy Prussia Comprehensive overview of Prussia: its origins among Baltic peoples, development into the Kingdom of Prussia, role in German unification, institutions and culture, and its dissolut…

Przemysł II (Przemysław) — Duke of Greater Poland and King of Poland Przemysł II Przemysł II (1257–1296) was a Piast duke who unified parts of Greater Poland and Pomerelia, briefly ruled Kraków, and in 1295 received a royal coronation that marked a step toward…