Archaeology

Kot Diji: prehistoric settlement and Talpur fort in Sindh, Pakistan Kot Diji Kot Diji is an early third‑millennium BCE archaeological site in Sindh, Pakistan, whose fortified citadel and distinctive pottery mark it as a precursor to the Indus Civilization;…

Kow Swamp archaeological site Late Pleistocene burial site in northern Victoria, Australia, noted for multiple human interments, distinctive crania, and its role in debates about early human variation and archa…

Krater — ancient Greek mixing vessel Krater A krater is an ancient Greek mixing vessel used to dilute wine with water; it appears in several shapes, decorated in pottery painting styles, and played a central social and ritua…

Kura–Araxes culture (Early Transcaucasian): Bronze Age society of the South Caucasus Kura–Araxes culture Bronze Age archaeological culture (c. 3500–2000 BCE) originating on the Ararat plain, noted for black‑and‑red burnished pottery, early metallurgy and wide distribution across the A…

Kurgan hypothesis Model proposing that Proto-Indo-European speakers spread from the Pontic–Caspian steppe via migrations and cultural diffusion; based on archaeology, linguistics and genetic evidenc…

La Brea Tar Pits Natural asphalt seeps in Hancock Park, Los Angeles, preserving Late Pleistocene plants and animals; a major paleontological site with an on‑site museum and ongoing research.

La Tène culture European late Iron Age archaeological culture (c. 500 BC–100 AD) noted for distinctive art, metalwork, settlements and its association with peoples termed Celts in classical source…

Laetoli: Pliocene footprints and early hominin bipedalism Laetoli Laetoli, a fossil site in Tanzania, preserves 3.6-million-year-old hominin footprints in volcanic ash that document habitual bipedal locomotion and inform debates about early homin…

Laguna Copperplate Inscription: Early Southeast Asian Legal Record Laguna Copperplate Inscription A 10th‑century copper plate inscribed in Kawi and Old Malay, the Laguna Copperplate Inscription is the earliest known written document found in the Philippines and sheds light on r…

Lake Mungo remains — Mungo Lady, Mungo Man and ancient Australian burials Lake Mungo remains Three well-known prehistoric human skeletons from the Willandra Lakes Region, Australia, notable for early burial practices, dating to around 40,000 years and their scientific and…

Las Médulas — Ancient Roman gold-mining landscape in Spain Las Médulas Las Médulas is a striking archaeological landscape near Ponferrada where Roman hydraulic mining transformed mountains to extract gold; today it is a protected heritage and popular…

Lascaux: Upper Paleolithic cave paintings in the Vézère Valley Lascaux Lascaux is a decorated cave complex in the Vézère Valley of southwestern France, noted for its Upper Paleolithic animal paintings, archaeological importance, and extensive conserva…

Linear A: The Undeciphered Script of Bronze Age Crete Linear A Linear A is an undeciphered Bronze Age writing system used in Minoan Crete. This article outlines its signs, corpus, relation to Linear B, discovery, language hypotheses, uses, and…

Linear B: The Mycenaean Greek Syllabary and Its Administrative Archives Linear B Linear B is a syllabic script used to record Mycenaean Greek in palace archives of the Late Bronze Age; deciphered in the 1950s, it preserves administrative records and the earlies…

Linear Pottery culture (LBK): Early European farming and pottery traditions Linear Pottery culture The Linear Pottery culture (LBK, c. 5500–4500 BC) marks the spread of farming into Central Europe, known for its incised linear-decorated pottery, longhouses, and early sedentary s…

List of Shipwrecks: Documented Sunken Vessels and Their Remains List of shipwrecks Overview of documented shipwrecks: classification, discovery, study, preservation, legal and cultural issues, and notable examples of sunken vessels whose remains have been found.

Lokiarchaeota: Asgard archaea linked to the origin of eukaryotes Lokiarchaeota Lokiarchaeota are a group of Archaea within the Asgard superphylum whose genomes contain eukaryotic-like genes, providing key insight into the evolutionary transition from prokaryo…

Lothal — Harappan Port and Industrial Site of the Indus Valley Lothal Lothal was a major Harappan town in present-day Gujarat known for its dockyard, bead and metal workshops, seals and evidence of long-distance trade across the Arabian Sea.

Lucy (Australopithecus) — AL 288-1, a landmark early hominid fossil Lucy (Australopithecus) Lucy (AL 288-1) is a well-preserved Australopithecus afarensis specimen discovered in Ethiopia in 1974. Her anatomy shows habitual bipedalism combined with small brain size, reshap…

Malakunanja II (Madjedbebe) — Rock shelter and early human site in Australia Malakunanja II Malakunanja II, also called Madjedbebe, is a rock shelter in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, Australia, with archaeological layers indicating human presence at least ~59,000–65,00…

Mehrgarh — Neolithic settlement on the Kachhi Plain Mehrgarh Mehrgarh is a key Neolithic archaeological site in Balochistan, Pakistan, inhabited from about 7000 BCE. It provides early evidence of farming, herding, craft production and long-t…

Mesoarchaean (Mesoarchean): Earth 3.2–2.8 billion years ago Mesoarchaean The Mesoarchaean (3.2–2.8 Ga) is the third era of the Archaean eon, characterized by early continental crust growth, stromatolite-forming microbial life, the Pongola glaciation, an…

Mississippian culture: mound-building societies of the Eastern Woodlands Mississippian culture Native American cultural tradition (c. 800–1600 CE) known for maize agriculture, platform mounds, complex chiefdoms and wide trade networks across the Mississippi River valley and…

Mohenjo-daro: major city of the Indus Valley civilization Mohenjo-daro Mohenjo-daro, a principal urban centre of the Indus Valley civilization in Sindh (Pakistan), is noted for planned streets, public bathing, undeciphered script and its UNESCO-protec…

Mound Builders: Indigenous earthen monuments of Eastern North America Mound Builders Earthen mounds built by diverse Indigenous cultures across eastern North America from the Archaic through the Mississippian eras. Overview of forms, cultures, functions, history, a…

Movius Line A proposed boundary in South Asia separating two broad Paleolithic stone-tool traditions — Acheulean handaxe industries to the west and simpler chopping-tool assemblages to the eas…

Mummification: preservation of human and animal remains Mummification Mummification is the preservation of a body’s soft tissues by natural or intentional means. This article explains methods, historical practices (notably Egyptian), cultural roles a…

Mycenae: Bronze Age citadel and center of Mycenaean Greece Mycenae Mycenae is a major Late Bronze Age archaeological site in the north-eastern Peloponnese, Greece, known for its fortified citadel, monumental gates, royal tombs and links to Homeric…

Mycenaean culture: Late Bronze Age Greece (c.1600–1100 BC) Mycenaean culture An overview of the Mycenaean civilization: its geography, social organization, archaeology, material culture, relationship with Crete and Homeric tradition, and the unresolved coll…

Naqsh-e Rajab: Sasanian rock-relief site near Persepolis Naqsh-e Rajab Naqsh-e Rajab is an archaeological site in Fars Province, Iran, noted for early Sasanian rock reliefs and inscriptions near Istakhr and Persepolis, illustrating royal investiture a…

National Archaeological Museum, Naples (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli) National Archaeological Museum, Naples Leading archaeological museum in Naples with major Greek, Roman and Renaissance collections and outstanding finds from Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae, including the Farnese treas…

National Museum of Iraq The National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad preserves and exhibits artifacts from ancient Mesopotamian civilizations. Established under the British mandate, it is central to archaeology…

Neolithic (New Stone Age): agriculture, settlements, and social change Neolithic The Neolithic marks the shift from foraging to farming, animal domestication, permanent villages, pottery and new technologies. It began at different times across the world and lai…

Neolithic British Isles (c. 4000–2500 BC) Neolithic British Isles Prehistoric period c.4000–2500 BC when farming, polished stone tools and large monuments spread across Great Britain, Ireland, the Isle of Man and surrounding islands.

Neolithic Revolution: origins, features, and long-term effects Neolithic revolution The Neolithic Revolution was the gradual transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture, sedentary life, and new social and technological systems across multiple regions over…

Newgrange: Neolithic Passage Tomb, County Meath, Ireland Newgrange Newgrange is a Neolithic passage tomb in County Meath, Ireland, built c. 3200 BC. It is noted for its corbelled chamber, carved kerbstones, and winter solstice illumination, and fo…

Nok culture: ancient terracotta producers and early ironworkers of West Africa Nok culture The Nok culture (c.1000 BC–300 CE) of central Nigeria is famed for its terracotta sculptures and early ironworking. Archaeological evidence reveals complex craft, farming and regio…

Numismatics: the study and collecting of coins, medals and currency Numismatics Numismatics is the scholarly study and collecting of coins, banknotes, medals and related objects. It informs history, archaeology, economics and art through material evidence of m…

Olmec civilization of ancient Mesoamerica Olmec Early complex society in the Gulf Coast lowlands of Mexico (c. 1500–400 BCE). Known for monumental stone heads, distinctive art, ceremonial centers and formative influence on later…

Oppidum: fortified Iron Age settlements and the birth of pre-Roman towns Oppidum Oppida were large fortified settlements of the European Iron Age that acted as political, economic and social centers before and during Roman expansion.

Overburden: definition, composition, removal and environmental issues Overburden Material lying above a deposit or feature that must be removed for mining, excavation or archaeology; includes soil and rock and has important management and reclamation implicatio…

Palaeoarchaean Era (3.6–3.2 billion years ago) Palaeoarchaean Geological era in the Archaean eon from 3.6 to 3.2 billion years ago, noted for early continental crust, greenstone belts and some of Earth's oldest microfossils.

Palaeolithic: Origins, Stone Tools, Life, and Cultural Development Palaeolithic The Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) is the long prehistoric period when hominins made stone tools, developed hunting-gathering economies, created early art, and spread across the glob…

Palaeoscincus — a historical ankylosaurian genus based on teeth Palaeoscincus Palaeoscincus is a historically important but taxonomically problematic dinosaur genus named from isolated teeth. Once widely reconstructed, it is now largely regarded as non-diagn…

Palenque — Maya archaeological site in Chiapas Palenque Palenque is a Classic-period Maya city in Chiapas, Mexico, noted for refined architecture, sculpted reliefs and inscriptions. It contains the Palace, the Temple of the Inscriptions…

Palermo Stone — fragment of the Royal Annals of Ancient Egypt Palermo Stone Largest surviving fragment of the Royal Annals: a basalt stele listing kings and year-by-year events from Egypt's First Dynasty through early Fifth Dynasty, held mainly in Palermo.

Papyrus 46 (P46): an early papyrus witness to the Pauline letters Papyrus 46 Papyrus 46 (P46) is one of the earliest surviving Greek New Testament papyri, a codex of Pauline letters dated ca. late 2nd–early 3rd century, now preserved in two collections and…

Peking Man (Homo erectus pekinensis) Peking Man Hominin fossils from Zhoukoudian near Beijing, long attributed to Homo erectus pekinensis. Key evidence for Middle Pleistocene occupation in East Asia; originals lost in 1941, cast…