Archaeology

Clay tablet: ancient medium of writing and record-keeping Clay tablet Clay tablets are hardened clay surfaces inscribed with wet-clay marks using a stylus. Widely used in the ancient Near East for accounting, law, literature and education, many survi…

Clovis culture — Early Paleoindian tradition in North America Clovis culture The Clovis culture refers to an early widespread Paleoindian technology and way of life in North America around 13,000 years ago, known for distinctive stone points and debated rol…

Clovis point (Paleoindian fluted stone spear point) Clovis point Distinctive fluted stone spear and knife points of the Paleoindian Clovis culture, first identified near Clovis, New Mexico. Circa 13,000 years ago, widespread across North America…

Coin collecting: an introduction to numismatics, history, and practice Coin collecting Overview of coin collecting (numismatics): motives, common types of collections, grading and storage, history, major organizations and practical tips for beginners and experienced…

Coligny calendar: the Gallic lunisolar bronze calendar Coligny calendar A fragmentary bronze lunisolar calendar of Roman‑era Gaul discovered near Lyon in 1897. Records a five‑year cycle of lunar months in Gaulish script and informs study of ancient Cel…

Coobool Creek: Pleistocene human remains site in south‑western New South Wales Coobool Creek Coobool Creek is an archaeological locality near the Wakool River, noted for a large surface assemblage of human skulls, debated Pleistocene dates, evidence of cranial modification…

Copán — Ancient Maya City of Sculptors and Inscriptions Copán Copán is a major Classic Maya archaeological site in western Honduras near Guatemala, famed for its sculpted stelae, the Hieroglyphic Stairway, dynastic records and distinctive art…

Cretan hieroglyphs: the Bronze Age script of Crete Cretan hieroglyphs Cretan hieroglyphs are an undeciphered Bronze Age writing system used on Crete (c. 20th–15th century BC). Mostly short pictographic inscriptions appear on seals and tablets; its re…

Cro-Magnon: early European modern humans of the Upper Paleolithic Cro-Magnon Cro-Magnon refers to early modern humans in Europe during the Upper Paleolithic, noted for robust anatomy, advanced material culture and symbolic behaviour; the term is now largely…

Culture of Ancient Rome An organized overview of social life, institutions, arts, religion and legacy of ancient Rome, showing how Roman culture absorbed and spread Mediterranean traditions over more than…

Dead Sea Scrolls Collection of ancient Jewish manuscripts discovered near the Dead Sea (1947–1979). Includes biblical texts and sectarian writings that illuminate late Second Temple Judaism and the…

Dinosaurland Fossil Museum — Lyme Regis fossil and dinosaur displays Dinosaurland Fossil Museum Private fossil museum in a Grade I listed former church in Lyme Regis, Dorset, presenting Jurassic marine fossils, dinosaur specimens, guided fossil walks and an educational shop.

Eartham Pit, Boxgrove — Palaeolithic site in West Sussex Eartham Pit, Boxgrove Eartham Pit (Boxgrove) is a Middle Pleistocene archaeological site in West Sussex notable for in situ flint tools, animal remains and rare hominin bones that illuminate life circa…

Edzná: Ancient Maya City and Archaeological Site in Campeche Edzná Edzná is a major Maya archaeological site in northern Campeche, Mexico, known for its Temple of the Five Stories, plazas, ballcourt and sophisticated hydraulic works; open to visit…

Egyptian Museum (Museum of Egyptian Antiquities), Cairo Egyptian Museum Major Cairo museum holding one of the world’s largest collections of ancient Egyptian antiquities, including Tutankhamun treasures, royal mummies, extensive statuary and important…

Egyptian Museum of Berlin (Ägyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung) Egyptian Museum of Berlin Major collection of Ancient Egyptian art and papyri within Berlin's Neues Museum; noted for the Nefertiti bust, mummies, research collections, restoration history, and repatriation…

Egyptology: Study of Ancient Egypt's Language, Art, and Material Culture Egyptology Academic field dedicated to the study of Ancient Egypt through texts, monuments, artifacts and excavation; combines archaeology, history, philology, art history and conservation me…

El Quartelejo Ruins (El Cuartelejo): the northernmost known pueblo in Kansas El Quartelejo Ruins Stone-and-adobe pueblo ruins in Lake Scott State Park, Kansas, representing rare eastern migration of Puebloan people; archaeological site, cultural crossroads, and visitor landmar…

Elder Futhark: the earliest runic alphabet of Germanic peoples Elder Futhark Elder Futhark is the oldest known runic script, used by Germanic-speaking communities c. 2nd–8th centuries. It contains 24 runes in three ætts and served both practical and symboli…

Eodromaeus — an early basal theropod from the Triassic Eodromaeus Eodromaeus, meaning "dawn runner," is a small, early theropod dinosaur from the Late Triassic of Argentina. Its nearly complete skeleton has been central to studies of the origin a…

Epigraphy — the study and interpretation of inscriptions Epigraphy Epigraphy examines texts carved, incised or painted on durable materials to document languages, events and social practices. It combines recording, reading, dating and context to r…

Epipalaeolithic: Late hunter-gatherer phase before the Neolithic Epipalaeolithic Epipalaeolithic denotes the regional hunter-gatherer cultures that followed the last Ice Age and preceded the Neolithic, marked by microlith technology, increased plant use and var…

Eretz Israel Museum — Museum of the Land of Israel (Tel Aviv) Eretz Israel Museum A descriptive overview of the Eretz Israel Museum in Tel Aviv, its collections, outdoor archaeological park, pavilions, educational role and significance for the study of pre-1948…

Etruscans (ancient Italian civilization) Etruscan Ancient people of central Italy (c. 8th–3rd centuries BCE) known for a distinctive non‑Indo‑European language, rich art and tomb culture, urban city‑states and religious practices…

Etruscan language: overview, script, history and legacy Etruscan language A concise encyclopedia article on the Etruscan language: its geographic range, script and inscriptions, classification, major texts, and its cultural and historical legacy in ancie…

Exhumation: removal and reopening of human remains Exhumation Exhumation is the deliberate removal of buried human remains. This article covers purposes, legal and forensic procedures, archaeological practice, ethical and public‑health consid…

Fibula (brooch) A fibula is an ancient brooch used to fasten garments from the Bronze Age through the early Middle Ages; both functional and decorative, fibulae are important archaeological and cu…

Fukuiraptor: Cretaceous theropod from Fukui, Japan Fukuiraptor Medium-sized carnivorous theropod from the Lower Cretaceous Kitadani Formation of Fukui Prefecture, Japan, known from partial skeletons and displayed at the Fukui Prefectural Dinos…

Nawarla Gabarnmung (Gabarnmung) — Aboriginal rock‑art and archaeological site Gabarnmung Nawarla Gabarnmung (Gabarnmung) is a major Aboriginal rock‑art and archaeological shelter in south‑western Arnhem Land, Northern Territory, notable for long human occupation and ex…

Hallstatt culture Early Iron Age cultural complex of Central Europe (c. 1200–450 BC). Known for salt mines at Hallstatt, rich grave goods, brooch typology, expanding trade with the Mediterranean and…

Hand axe: form, history, and significance in early human technology Hand axe Hand axes are early bifacial stone tools used by hominins from the Lower Paleolithic onward. This article explains their form, manufacture, chronology, uses, and regional variation…

Happisburgh archaeology: earliest hominin evidence on the Norfolk coast Happisburgh archaeology Happisburgh on the Norfolk coast preserves early Pleistocene sediments, stone tools and hominin footprints dated to about 0.78–1.0 million years ago; the site sheds light on early…

Harappa — major Indus Valley archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan Harappa Harappa is a principal Bronze Age city of the Indus Valley Civilization in Punjab, Pakistan, known for planned urban layout, seals, drainage systems and undeciphered script.

Henge: prehistoric circular earthworks of the British Isles Henge A henge is a Neolithic circular or oval earthwork—typically a bank with an internal ditch—built mainly in the late Neolithic and early Bronze Age in the British Isles, usually inte…

Hieroglyph: definition, history, and cultural significance Hieroglyph An accessible overview of hieroglyphic writing: what hieroglyphs are, how they work, their origins and history, cultural examples, and why they matter today.

Hoxne treasure: late Roman hoard from Suffolk, England Hoxne treasure Largest late-Roman gold, silver and coin hoard found in Britain (1992). Discovery, contents, excavation, dating, significance, and its effect on museum practice and treasure law.

Ichnology: the study of trace fossils and behavioral records in rocks Ichnology Ichnology examines trace fossils—tracks, burrows, trails and borings—to reconstruct organism behavior, depositional environments, and sedimentary processes across Earth history.

Icknield Street (Ryknild Street): Roman road from Bourton to Templeborough Icknield Street A Roman road in Britain connecting the Fosse Way at Bourton-on-the-Water with Templeborough, passing Alcester, Birmingham, Lichfield and Derby. Known also as Ryknild Street and dis…

Clasina "Ina" Isings — Dutch classical archaeologist and curator Ina Isings Dutch classical archaeologist (1919–2018), curator and scholar best known for cataloguing Roman glass and managing the Provincial Utrecht Society collection; affiliated with the Un…

Jacques de Morgan — French civil engineer, geologist and archaeologist Jacques de Morgan French engineer and archaeologist (1857–1924) known for excavations in Egypt, surveys and detailed drawings of pyramids, and for directing antiquities work in the late 19th century…

Potassium–Argon (K–Ar) dating K–Ar dating A radiometric method that measures decay of potassium-40 to argon-40 to determine ages of volcanic and metamorphic rocks; important in geochronology and paleo- and tectonic studies…

Kalibangan: Indus Valley Site on the Ghaggar-Hakra Plain Kalibangan Kalibangan is an archaeological site in Rajasthan associated with the Indus Valley civilization, noted for its mud-brick town planning, unique fire altars and the earliest known pl…

Khaled Asaad — Syrian archaeologist and guardian of Palmyra's heritage Khaled Asaad Khaled Asaad (1934–2015) was a Syrian archaeologist who served as head of antiquities in Palmyra for over forty years. Captured and killed by ISIL in 2015, he is remembered for sch…

Kidron Valley necropolis (Silwan necropolis), rock-cut Jewish tombs in Jerusalem Kidron Valley necropolis Ancient row of rock-cut Jewish burial caves in the Kidron Valley below the Mount of Olives and the City of David, known for carved facades, burial chambers, and the Tomb of Pharaoh…

Klaus Schmidt (archaeologist) — director of Göbekli Tepe excavations Klaus Schmidt (archaeologist) German archaeologist Klaus Schmidt (1953–2014) directed excavations at Göbekli Tepe and reshaped understanding of early Neolithic ritual architecture built before full-scale farmin…

Knap of Howar: Neolithic stone houses on Papa Westray Knap of Howar Early Neolithic farm on Papa Westray, Orkney, occupied c. 3700–2800 BC. Two stone buildings survive and illuminate domestic life in northern Europe’s early farming communities.

Knossos — Bronze Age palace complex on Crete Knossos Knossos is the principal Bronze Age archaeological site on Crete, best known for its Minoan palace, frescoes, and the discovery of the Linear A and Linear B scripts.

Knowth: Neolithic passage tomb complex in the Boyne Valley Knowth Knowth is a major Neolithic passage tomb complex in County Meath, Ireland, notable for its large central mound, many satellite tombs and one of the richest concentrations of megali…