History

Golden age: meaning, uses, examples, and historical perspective Golden age Overview of the phrase “golden age,” its meanings across history, arts and personal life, notable examples, and cautions about idealizing the past.

Golden Age of India Periods in Indian history noted for political stability, cultural flourishing, scientific advances and economic prosperity; several eras across regions are described as ‘golden age…

Goryeo (Koryo): Korean dynasty, 918–1392 Goryeo Goryeo was a Korean dynasty that unified the Later Three Kingdoms, ruled from 918 to 1392, and produced major cultural achievements including celadon pottery, the Tripitaka Koreana…

Govindapala — late Pala ruler and contested successor Govindapala Govindapala is identified in some sources as the successor of Madanapala and is often regarded as the last ruler associated with the Pala dynasty of Bengal, though evidence and int…

Gran Colombia (Republic of Colombia, 1819–1831) Gran Colombia History and legacy of Gran Colombia: its formation after independence, territory, institutions, internal tensions, constitution, leaders, dissolution into successor states, and lon…

Grand Duchy of Baden The Grand Duchy of Baden was a sovereign state in southwest Germany from 1806 to 1918, centered on Karlsruhe. It experienced constitutional reform, economic change, and ended with…

Grand Duchy of Lithuania (medieval state, c. 12th century–1569) Grand Duchy of Lithuania A multiethnic medieval state in Eastern Europe that grew from Baltic Lithuanian lands to encompass large parts of Slavic East Europe before a formal union with Poland.

Grand Duchy of Tuscany Former sovereign state in central Italy (1569–1859), centered on Florence and ruled first by the Medici and later by the House of Lorraine; noted for art patronage and administrati…

The Grand Tour: 17th–19th century educational travel through Europe Grand Tour A cultural rite of passage for mainly wealthy British young men from the 17th to mid-19th century, traveling across Europe—especially Italy—to study art, architecture and society.

Great Awakenings (periods of religious revival in the United States) Great Awakening Series of major Protestant revival movements in U.S. history, commonly grouped as four 'Great Awakenings' from the 18th to the late 20th century, with contested boundaries and vari…

Great Depression: causes, course, policy responses and global effects Great Depression Severe global economic downturn that began after the 1929 U.S. stock market crash; led to mass unemployment, political change, New Deal reforms and lasting financial regulation.

Great Famine (Ireland, 1845–1852) Great Famine (Ireland) Mid-19th-century catastrophe in Ireland caused by potato blight. Wide-scale crop failure led to mass starvation, disease, emigration and long-term demographic and political change.

Great Leap Forward (China, 1958–1961) Great Leap Forward A Chinese campaign initiated by Mao Zedong to rapidly industrialize and collectivize the countryside; policy failures and disastrous harvests produced a famine that killed millions…

Great Northern War (1700–1721) Great Northern War Comprehensive overview of the Great Northern War: causes, principal combatants, major campaigns and battles, treaties, territorial changes and long‑term consequences for the Baltic…

Great Turkish War (1683–1699) Great Turkish War A summary of the Great Turkish War (1683–1699): causes, key battles such as the Siege of Vienna, the Holy League coalition, the Treaty of Karlowitz and the war's political and terr…

Great Vowel Shift Major historical change in English long-vowel pronunciation between the late Middle English and Early Modern English periods that shaped modern English phonology and the mismatch w…

Greater Hesse (Großhessen): postwar reorganization of a German state Greater Hesse Greater Hesse (Großhessen) was a short-lived administrative state in the U.S. occupation zone after WWII, created from parts of Hesse-Darmstadt and Prussian provinces and later ren…

Greater Khorasan: Historical Region of Iran and Central Asia Greater Khorasan Greater Khorasan is a historical region of northeastern Iran and Central Asia, influential in medieval politics, trade and culture; its borders shifted across modern Iran, Afghanis…

Greco-Bactrian Kingdom Hellenistic state (c. 250–125 BC) centered in Bactria (modern Afghanistan) that blended Greek and Central Asian cultures, issued distinctive coinage, and influenced Indo-Greek and…

Greco-Roman world The cultural, political and linguistic sphere shaped by ancient Greek and Roman civilization across the Mediterranean, its institutions, arts, religions and long-term influence on…

Greco–Persian Wars (499–449 BC) Greco–Persian wars Series of wars between the city-states of Classical Greece and the Achaemenid Persian Empire (499–449 BC), including the Ionian Revolt and the major invasions culminating at Marath…

Greek War of Independence (1821–1832): struggle, intervention, and nation-building Greek War of Independence The Greek War of Independence (1821–1832) was a multi‑year uprising by Greeks against the Ottoman Empire that led to the establishment of an independent Greek state with major inte…

Gregorian calendar International civil calendar introduced in 1582 to correct drift in the Julian calendar; defined modern leap-year rules and now used for civil purposes in most countries.

Guaramid Dynasty (Iberian Georgia) Guaramid Dynasty A junior branch of the Chosroid royal house that provided presiding princes of Iberia (Kartli), active in late antiquity and the early medieval era and influential in Georgian poli…

Guelders (Gelre): historical county and duchy of the Low Countries Guelders Guelders (Dutch Gelre, German Geldern) was a medieval county turned duchy in the Holy Roman Empire, centered in parts of today's Netherlands and Germany and later absorbed into Bur…

Guilder (gulden): history, meaning and modern use Guilder Guilder, from Dutch gulden meaning 'golden', is a historical European currency name — once a gold coin, later silver or base-metal money — best known from the Dutch guilder and the…

Guinea (coin) A British gold coin first struck in 1663, the guinea became a unit of account for luxury prices. Fixed at 21 shillings in the early 18th century, the guinea remained significant lo…

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution 1964 U.S. congressional resolution that authorized broader military action in Vietnam after confrontations in the Gulf of Tonkin; later a focus of controversy over the incidents an…

Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE) Gupta Empire A major Indian dynasty that unified much of northern India and presided over a period of literary, scientific and artistic flourishing often called a 'Golden Age'.

Gyorin — Joseon Korea’s policy of neighborly relations Gyorin Gyorin was a Confucian-era diplomatic approach used by Joseon Korea to manage relations with neighboring states other than imperial China, emphasizing practical, reciprocal ties in…

Habsburg Spain (1506–1700): empire, governance, religion and culture Habsburg Spain History of Spain under the Habsburgs (1506–1700): a composite monarchy with vast overseas possessions, administrative institutions, military challenges, the Spanish Golden Age and…

Hadith: reports of the Prophet Muhammad and their role in Islam Hadith Hadith are reports of the Prophet Muhammad’s words, actions and approvals. Alongside the Qur'an they inform Islamic law, practice and ethics; scholars developed methods to evaluate…

Haitian Revolution (1791–1804): Slave uprising and the birth of Haiti Haitian Revolution The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) was a successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial revolt in Saint-Domingue that abolished slavery and established Haiti as an independent republic…

Hakuchi era (650–654) — Japanese nengō of Emperor Kōtoku Hakuchi (era) Hakuchi (白雉) was the Japanese era name from 650 to 654 during Emperor Kōtoku's reign. The name commemorates a white pheasant and sits within the Asuka period following the Taika re…

Hamidian massacres Mass killings of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire during the 1890s under Sultan Abdul Hamid II; estimates of victims vary widely and the events had lasting regional and internationa…

Hammadid dynasty Medieval Berber dynasty (c.1008–1152) that governed parts of northeastern Algeria, founded the fortified Qal'a Beni Hammad and later developed the port city of Béjaïa before conque…

Han dynasty: China’s formative imperial era (c. 202 BC–220 AD) Han dynasty Overview of the Han dynasty: origins, political organization, Confucian–Legalist synthesis, expansion, the Silk Road, cultural and technological achievements, decline, and enduring…

Hangul: The Korean Writing System Hangul Hangul is the native Korean script invented in the 15th century. This article explains its design, structure, history, modern use in Korea, and cultural significance.

Hans Scholl German university student and co‑founder of the White Rose resistance group; known for anti‑Nazi leaflets and his 1943 execution, later celebrated as a symbol of civilian oppositio…

Harem: private women's quarters and social institution Harem Harem refers to the private living quarters and social institution that historically housed women, female relatives, servants and concubines in polygynous or elite households; it h…

Harihara I — Founder of the Vijayanagara state Harihara I Harihara I (traditionally c. 1336–1356) founded the Sangama dynasty and established the political core of the Vijayanagara state in the Tungabhadra valley.

Härjedalen — a sparsely populated province in northern Sweden Härjedalen Härjedalen is a historic province in inland Norrland, northern Sweden, known for its mountains, forests, low population density, outdoor recreation and history as part of Norway un…

Hartheim Killing Facility (Hartheim Euthanasia Centre) Hartheim Killing Facility Hartheim was a Nazi killing centre in Hartheim Castle near Linz, Austria, used in the T4 euthanasia programme to murder people with disabilities and other victims during WWII.

Hasmonean dynasty Jewish ruling family established after the Maccabean Revolt that governed an independent Judean state in the 2nd–1st centuries BCE, expanding territory and combining priestly and r…

Hatshepsut: Egyptian Pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty Hatshepsut Hatshepsut (c.1507–1458 BC) was a female pharaoh of Egypt's 18th Dynasty, renowned for a long, prosperous reign, monumental building projects—especially Deir el-Bahri—and a celebra…

Hayasa-Azzi (Azzi-Hayasa) — Late Bronze Age polity of the Armenian Highlands Hayasa-Azzi Hayasa-Azzi was a Late Bronze Age group and region in the Armenian Highlands known from Hittite texts. Its location, language and links to later peoples are debated because evidenc…

Hedjet — the White Crown of Upper Egypt Hedjet Hedjet, the White Crown of Upper Egypt, represented regional sovereignty in pharaonic Egypt. Combined with the Red Crown (Deshret) it formed the Double Crown (Pschent), a central s…

Heian period (Japan): court culture, politics, and the rise of the samurai Heian period Japanese era from 794 to the late 12th century marked by refined court culture, development of kana and classical literature, the dominance of the Fujiwara clan, private estates (s…