Heian period

The Heian period (Japanese 平安時代, Heian-jidai) or Heian period refers to an era (794-1185, also 794-1192) of Japanese history.

The cornerstone of the golden Heian period was laid in 794, when the imperial court was moved to the Heian Palace (Daidairi) in Heian-kyō, present-day Kyōto. With the move, relations with the Chinese Empire diminished, corresponding to a greater inward focus.

At the Heian court, Japanese culture, art and customs were brought to extraordinary refinement. The Heian period is considered the classical period of Japanese literature, which was especially cultivated by ladies-in-waiting. The so-called court lady literature includes, for example, the Genji Monogatari of the court lady Murasaki Shikibu and the pillow book of the court lady Sei Shōnagon. In addition, diary narratives (nikki) developed; poetry anthologies (chokusenwakashū) were compiled by imperial order. Two important examples of this are the Kokin-wakashū and the Manyōshū. During that period, a Japanese poetics emerged in the form of the Sakumon Daitai.

Since Chinese writing was still the only way to write anything down at the time, and learning it was considered unseemly for women, the court lady literature of the Heian period also led to the development of a new syllabary, first called onna-de (women's hand) and later canonized as hiragana.

While the courtly culture flourished, the power of the emperor diminished more and more and flowed to the Fujiwara family, who gained influence through their clever marriage policy. They married their daughters to the emperors and then ruled by proxy for their minor descendants. A particularly powerful member of the Fujiwara family was Fujiwara no Michinaga, who married four of his daughters to emperors (See also Marriage and Partnership in the Heian Period).

Characteristic of the Heian period is the existence of several political centers of power, for the existence of different imperial courts, each with its own retinue, was not unusual. There were a great many different offices and gradations of rank, created on the Chinese model, but rarely associated with real power. The most important of these were regent for a minor emperor (Sesshō) and grand chancellor (Kampaku). In 1086, the office of exkaiser (insei, engl. government from the monastery) was introduced.

Gradually, the Taihō method of land control had to give way to a type of private land ownership, the Shōen. Through inheritances, donations, and development of new arable land, private land ownership grew more and more. The imperial court lost control over the land, and thus control over money (rice was the currency at the time). For local protection, the shoên owners built up private armies. This led to the rapid rise of the warrior class.

In the middle of the 12th century, the power struggles between the rival nobles increased more and more, and problems also increased due to the Buddhist temples making demands. Conflicts were now solved by military means. The most important warrior clans were the Genji (Minamoto) and the Heike (Taira), who could derive their origin from the imperial house. During the Heiji no Ran, when the Minamoto, led by Minamoto no Yoshitomo, kidnapped the Tenno to seize political power, they were crushed by the Taira under Taira no Kiyomori. Years later, when the Taira had established their power by marrying into the imperial family, the Genji rose again and the Gempei War broke out. Under Minamoto no Yoritomo, who had been spared by Kiyomori because of his youth, his half-brother Minamoto no Yoshitsune fought numerous battles against the Taira. With the naval battle of Dan-no-ura, the Taira reign ended: the child emperor Antoku died, and the Taira clan was wiped out. Yoritomo had Yoshitsune killed and was appointed sei-i-tai-shogun (supreme commander of the army for the expulsion of barbarians) in 1192. He established a military administration centered in Kamakura and called Bakufu.