History

Frederick II Frederick II refers to several European rulers. Most famously Frederick II (1194–1250), Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily; others include Frederick II of Prussia and rulers in…

French and Indian War (1754–1763) French and Indian War North American theater of the Seven Years' War between Britain and France, involving Native American nations; resulted in British victory and major territorial changes under the 17…

French colonial empire: origins, development, and legacy French colonial empire Comprehensive overview of the French colonial empire: its two phases, major territories, institutions, economic and social impacts, decolonization, and long-term legacies including…

French Dahomey: colonial period, administration and path to independence French Dahomey Overview of French Dahomey (part of French West Africa), its administration, economy, major historical milestones from colonial annexation to the 1960 independence and 1975 renamin…

French First Republic (1792–1804) French First Republic Republic established after the fall of the monarchy in 1792; saw the National Convention, Reign of Terror, the Directory, and the Consulate leading to Napoleon's empire.

French Indochina A former French colonial federation in Southeast Asia comprising present-day Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia; its formation, administration, wartime occupation, decolonization, and lega…

French Republican calendar A secular calendar introduced during the French Revolution that reorganized months, weeks and day names into a decimal-inspired system used officially from 1793 to 1805.

French Revolution (1789–1799) French Revolution A transformative decade in which France overthrew the old regime, enacted Enlightenment principles, experienced radical political and social upheaval, and produced long-lasting eff…

French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) French Revolutionary Wars A decade of European and global conflict triggered by the French Revolution, pitting Republican France against shifting coalitions of monarchies and reshaping politics, territory,…

French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) French Wars of Religion Series of eight civil wars in 16th-century France between Catholics and Huguenot Protestants, marked by political rivalries, massacres, foreign intervention, and the 1598 Edict of…

Fukuhara-kyō Fukuhara-kyō was the short-lived imperial capital of Japan in 1180, established by the Taira clan near modern Kobe in Hyōgo Prefecture; it served as a political and maritime center…

Future: concepts, study, and cultural representation Future An overview of the future as a concept, its relation to time, methods for studying possible futures, cultural portrayals, and practical uses of futures thinking.

Gaelic Ireland: society, law and culture through the medieval period Gaelic Ireland Gaelic Ireland was the indigenous Gaelic social, legal and cultural order across Ireland from prehistory to the early 17th century, notable for clan organization, Brehon law, bardi…

Gallows letter: urgent postal markings used in Tudor England Gallows letter A gallows letter is a Tudor-era dispatch marked with a gallows drawing to indicate extreme urgency. Notable in postal history and collecting, such marks appear on Privy Council let…

Gangyō era (877–885) — Japanese nengō of the early Heian period Gangyō Gangyō (元慶) was a Japanese era name from April 877 to February 885, spanning the reign of Emperor Yōzei during the early Heian period; it followed Jōgan and preceded Ninna.

Gen'ei — Japanese era name (1118–1120) Gen'ei Gen'ei (元永) was a short Japanese era from April 1118 to April 1120 during the late Heian period, under Emperor Toba. It succeeded Eikyū and preceded Hōan in the nengō system.

Gen'ō (1319–1321) — Japanese era name Gen'ō Gen'ō was a short Japanese era (1319–1321) during the early reign of Emperor Go‑Daigo, situated between the Bunpō and Genkyō eras in the Kamakura period.

Genbun (元文): Japanese era name, 1736–1741 Genbun Genbun (元文) was a Japanese era name (nengō) from April 1736 to February 1741 during the reign of Emperor Sakuramachi. It followed Kyōhō and preceded Kanpō, and is used in historica…

Genchū: the final Southern Court era of Japan's Nanboku-chō period Genchū Genchū (1384–1392) was the last era name used by the Southern Court during Japan's Nanboku-chō division, covering Emperor Go-Kameyama's rule in Yoshino and ending with reunificatio…

Genealogy: the study and practice of tracing family history Genealogy An accessible overview of genealogy: what it is, key records and tools, historical development, reasons people research family lines, and practical and ethical challenges.

Genji (元治): Japanese era, 1864–1865 Genji Genji (元治) was a brief Japanese era from February 1864 to April 1865 during Emperor Kōmei’s reign, set amid the late Bakumatsu turmoil with incidents such as the Kinmon and Ikedaya…

Genka calendar (Genka-reki) Genka calendar A Japanese lunisolar calendar of Chinese origin used from 604 to 696, known as Genka-reki or Yuan-jia li, which regulated months, festivals, and agricultural cycles in early Japan.

Genki (Japanese era, 1570–1573) Genki Genki (元亀) was a Japanese era from April 1570 to July 1573 during the late Sengoku period under Emperor Ōgimachi, notable for Oda Nobunaga’s campaigns and the collapse of Ashikaga…

Genkō — era names, Mongol invasions, and manuscript paper Genkō Genkō can refer to two Japanese era names (1321–1324 and 1331–1334), the Mongol invasions of Japan in the late 13th century, or Genkō yōshi manuscript paper; the term uses differen…

Genkō (1331–1334): Japanese era at the end of the Kamakura period Genkō (era) Genkō (元弘) was the Japanese era from August 1331 to January 1334. It covers the Genkō War, the fall of the Kamakura shogunate and the events that led to the Kenmu Restoration and t…

Genkyō era (1321–1324) Genkyō Genkyō (元亨) was a Japanese era name from February 1321 to December 1324, during the reign of Emperor Go-Daigo, in the late Kamakura period; distinct from the later Genkō era of the…

Genkyū (元久) — Japanese era name, 1204–1206 Genkyū Genkyū was a Japanese era name (nengō) from February 1204 to April 1206 during the reign of Emperor Tsuchimikado in the early Kamakura period.

Genna — Japanese era name (1615–1624) Genna Genna (元和) was a Japanese era name from July 1615 to February 1624 during the early Edo period, marked by the consolidation of Tokugawa rule and the death of Tokugawa Ieyasu.

Gennin (Japanese era, 1224–1225) Gennin Gennin was a Japanese era name (nengō) that lasted from November 1224 to April 1225, during the reign of Emperor Go-Horikawa, located between the Jōō and Karoku eras of the early K…

Genroku era (1688–1704): a cultural high point of Edo Japan Genroku Japanese era name from 1688 to 1704, associated with stability under the Tokugawa shogunate and an efflorescence of urban arts such as kabuki, bunraku, ukiyo-e and haiku.

Genryaku era (1184–1185) Genryaku Genryaku (元暦) was a Japanese era name spanning April 1184 to August 1185, a short period marked by the closing phase of the Genpei War and the overthrow of the Taira at Dan-no-ura.

Gentleman: history, social meaning, and cultural influence Gentleman An overview of the term 'gentleman': its historical social origins, typical characteristics, cultural role in literature and sport, and how its meaning has changed in modern usage.

Gentoku (Japanese era name, 1329–1332) Gentoku Gentoku (元徳) was a Japanese era name used in the early 14th century. It overlapped rival Northern and Southern Court chronologies and covered the years surrounding the 1331 Genkō u…

Gepids: an East Germanic people and their kingdom Gepids The Gepids were an East Germanic people who established a kingdom in the central Danube region after the fall of Hunnic power in the 5th century CE. Their polity occupied parts of…

German Empire (Deutsches Reich, 1871–1918) German Empire Federal monarchy formed in 1871 under Prussian leadership; an industrializing great power that lasted until the 1918 revolution and left lasting political, social and cultural lega…

German Reich (Deutsches Reich): the state of Germany, 1871–1945 German Reich The German Reich (Deutsches Reich) was the official name of Germany from 1871 to 1945. This article outlines its political phases, institutions, changes in territory, and historica…

German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung) German reunification The 1990 political and legal process that ended Germany's post‑war division, integrating the German Democratic Republic into the Federal Republic and restoring a single German stat…

German Revolutions of 1848–1849 A comprehensive account of the uprisings in the German states (1848–1849): causes, main events including the Frankfurt National Assembly, suppression and the revolutions' political…

German South West Africa (Deutsch‑Südwestafrika) German South West Africa German South West Africa was a German colony from 1884 to 1915 in the territory of present‑day Namibia, notable for its settler economy, railway development, and the violent suppre…

Gewisse: an early Anglo-Saxon group linked to the origins of Wessex Gewisse The Gewisse were a prominent early Anglo-Saxon people concentrated in the upper Thames valley whose leaders and territory formed the nucleus of what became the kingdom of Wessex.

Ghana Empire (Wagadu) — medieval West African state Ghana Empire West African medieval empire, often called Wagadu, centered on Koumbi Saleh. Known for trans-Saharan gold–salt trade, mixed religious culture, and influence on later Sahelian state…

Ghassanids: Pre-Islamic Arab Dynasty and Byzantine Federates Ghassanids The Ghassanids were a pre‑Islamic Arab dynasty that migrated from Yemen to the Levant, adopted Christianity, served as Byzantine federates against Sassanid allies, and whose descen…

Ghaznavid Empire (c. 975–1187) Ghaznavid Empire Sunni Muslim state of Turkic origin centered at Ghazni that extended over parts of Persia, Transoxiana and northern India, known for military expansion and Persian cultural patrona…

Gibraltar Chronicle — Gibraltar's long-running daily newspaper Gibraltar Chronicle Daily newspaper founded in 1801 in Gibraltar. One of the territory's oldest institutions and among the world's longest-running English-language newspapers, reporting local news, po…

Gilded Age (United States, late 19th century) Gilded Age Era in U.S. history after the Civil War characterized by rapid industrial growth, urbanization, mass immigration, concentrated wealth, political machines, labor unrest and debates…

Goguryeo (Koguryo): an ancient Korean kingdom, 37 BCE–668 CE Goguryeo Goguryeo was a major ancient Korean kingdom (traditional founding 37 BCE–668 CE) centered in northern Korea and southern Manchuria, noted for military power, tomb art, and a lastin…

Goki calendar (Goki-reki) Goki calendar Goki (Wuji li) was a Chinese-developed lunisolar calendar adopted in Japan in the mid-9th century; it guided months, intercalation and court rituals before later calendar reforms r…

Gokishichidō: The Five Provinces and Seven Circuits of Early Japan Gokishichidō Gokishichidō was an early Japanese regional system dividing the country into five central provinces (Kinai) and seven regional circuits (dō) used for administration, roads, and cul…