Anthropology

Arawak peoples: history, languages, and surviving communities Arawak people Indigenous peoples of northern South America and the Caribbean, their Arawakan languages, cultural traits, effects of European contact, and modern descendants and revitalization ef…

Ardipithecus: an early hominin genus and its significance Ardipithecus Ardipithecus is an early hominin genus from East Africa. Known from two species, it combines arboreal and bipedal traits and informs debates about the origins of human locomotion a…

Armenian Americans: History, communities, and cultural life Armenian Americans Armenian Americans are U.S. residents of Armenian descent. This article summarizes population data, migration history, principal communities, institutions, cultural contributions a…

Armenian diaspora: distribution, history, and cultural identity Armenian diaspora Communities of Armenians living outside the Republic of Armenia, their historical causes, geographic distribution, cultural institutions, and ties to the homeland.

Artificial cranial deformation Deliberate reshaping of an infant's skull using binding or boards to produce culturally valued head shapes, practiced in many ancient and some modern societies for identity or stat…

Ashanti (Asante): people, history, and cultural traditions Ashanti Overview of the Ashanti (Asante): an Akan subgroup of West Africa with distinctive institutions, history, language and cultural practices centered historically in present-day Ghana…

Ashkenazi Jews: Origins, Culture, Language, and Historical Impact Ashkenazi Jews Overview of Ashkenazi Jews: their origins in Europe, language and religious traditions, historical migrations, cultural contributions, effects of the Holocaust, and modern demograp…

Asian Americans Americans of Asian ancestry represent a diverse set of communities with origins in East, South, and Southeast Asia. This article outlines definitions, history, demographics, cultur…

Assyrian people: history, language, religion and modern diaspora Assyrian people Assyrians are an indigenous Middle Eastern ethnoreligious community with roots in ancient Mesopotamia. They speak Neo-Aramaic dialects, are predominantly Christian, and maintain a…

Au pair: live-in cultural exchange and childcare arrangement Au pair An au pair is a young foreign national who lives with a host family to help with childcare and light household tasks while taking part in cultural and language exchange.

Aunt: definition, kinship roles, cultural terms, and social significance Aunt An aunt is a female relative who is a sibling of a parent or married to one. This article explains kinship terms, types of aunts, cultural variations, social roles, and common dist…

Auregnais — the extinct Norman dialect of Alderney Auregnais Auregnais was the Norman variety once spoken on the island of Alderney. It fell out of use in the mid-20th century after wartime evacuation and long-term anglicization; traces surv…

Australian Canadians Canadians who were born in Australia or who trace their ancestry to Australia; a small, mobile community connected by shared language, institutions and frequent temporary migration…

Australoid (historical racial classification) Australoid (race) Australoid is an outdated anthropological term once used to group Indigenous Australians, Melanesians and some Southeast Asian peoples; modern genetics rejects such discrete racial…

Australopithecine — early bipedal hominins of the Pliocene and Pleistocene Australopithecine Australopithecines are an assemblage of early African hominins (genera Australopithecus and Paranthropus) that show mixed adaptations for bipedal walking and tree climbing and occu…

Australopithecus — Early bipedal hominins of Africa Australopithecus Australopithecus is an extinct genus of early hominins from Pliocene–Pleistocene Africa, important for understanding the origin of bipedalism and the ancestry of Homo.

Australopithecus afarensis — an early bipedal hominin Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus afarensis was an East African hominin from about 3.9–2.9 million years ago, known for bipedal adaptations, notable fossils such as Lucy and the Laetoli footprints,…

Australopithecus africanus: early South African hominin Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus africanus is an extinct hominin from southern Africa (c. 3.0–2.0 Ma). Known from the Taung Child and other fossils, it combined bipedal adaptations with facial and…

Australopithecus anamensis: early Pliocene hominin from East Africa Australopithecus anamensis Australopithecus anamensis is an early Pliocene hominin known from East Africa. It shows a mix of primitive and derived traits and is widely regarded as an ancestor of Australopith…

Australopithecus bahrelghazali: the Chad hominin 'Abel' and its significance Australopithecus bahrelghazali Australopithecus bahrelghazali is a fossil hominin known from a partial jaw found in Chad, dated to about 3.6 million years ago. Its features and location prompted debate about ear…

Australopithecus garhi — a Pliocene australopith from Bouri, Ethiopia Australopithecus garhi Australopithecus garhi is a gracile australopithecine from the Bouri Formation in Ethiopia, dated to about 2.5 million years ago; notable for a mix of primitive and derived traits…

Austronesian languages Large language family spanning Madagascar to Easter Island; includes Malay, Tagalog, Javanese, Polynesian languages; noted for reduplication, affixation, and wide geographic spread…

Austronesian peoples: distribution, origins, and cultural legacy Austronesian peoples Austronesian peoples are speakers of the Austronesian language family who settled islands across Southeast Asia, Oceania and Madagascar; notable for maritime expansion, diverse cul…

Awan (tribe) Awan is a Muslim tribal community primarily found in Punjab and neighbouring regions of Pakistan, known for agrarian landowning, clan organization and a historical association with…

Aymara language: overview, features, history, and contemporary status Aymara language Aymara is an indigenous Andean language spoken mainly in Bolivia, Peru and northern Chile. This article outlines its linguistic features, history, distribution, official status and…

Aymara people: Indigenous inhabitants of the Andean highlands Aymara people The Aymara are an Indigenous people of the central Andes, concentrated around Lake Titicaca in Bolivia, Peru and northern Chile. They have a distinct language, social organization…

Azerbaijani people (Azeris): language, history, distribution and culture Azerbaijani people Azerbaijanis (Azeris) are a Turkic-speaking people concentrated in the Republic of Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran, with communities across the Caucasus, Russia, Turkey and beyond…

Aztecs: the Mexica and related Nahua peoples of central Mexico Aztecs Overview of the Aztecs (Mexica/Nahua): society, religion, economy, history from the 14th–16th centuries, key cities and legacy in modern Mexico and culture.

Badeshi language: a nearly extinct tongue of northern Pakistan Badeshi language Badeshi is a critically endangered northwestern Indo-Iranian language of Pakistan, reported to survive only among a handful of speakers in Bishigram and Tirat valleys; it has been…

Bahraini people: communities, language, history, and culture Bahraini people An overview of the people of Bahrain: indigenous Baharna, other Arab groups, religious and linguistic traits, historical background, cultural practices and modern social dynamics.

Bahun (Khas Brahmin): Nepali hill Brahmin community Bahun Bahun, or Khas Brahmins, are the hill Brahmin community of the Khas ethno-linguistic group in Nepal, traditionally serving as priests, teachers and administrators and recognized as…

Bambara (Bamanankan): language of Mali and the Manding family Bambara language Bambara (Bamanankan) is a Manding language of Mali, widely used as a lingua franca and rich in oral literature. This article covers its classification, sounds, writing, dialects, a…

Band (anthropology): small kin-based societies and their characteristics Band (anthropology) A band is a small, kin-based social group typical of hunter-gatherer lifeways. This article explains its defining features, distribution, origins, social organization, and relevanc…

Bantu languages: distribution, structure, history and significance Bantu languages Overview of the Bantu languages: their geographic range, linguistic features, historical expansion, major languages, and cultural importance across central, eastern, and southern A…

Bantu peoples: origins, languages and cultural diversity Bantu peoples Overview of the Bantu peoples, a broad grouping of hundreds of African ethnic communities linked by Bantu languages, their origins, migrations, cultural features and modern signifi…

Barbarian: origins, historical uses, and modern meanings Barbarian A survey of the word 'barbarian' from its Greek linguistic origin to Roman and modern usages, cultural representations, and scholarly critiques of the term and its connotations.

Baure language: an Arawakan tongue of Bolivia Baure language Baure is an Arawakan language of northeastern Bolivia, now nearly extinct with only a few dozen speakers; it is notable for an active–stative alignment and for its cultural signifi…

Bedouin: nomadic Arab communities, culture and modern change Bedouin Bedouin are Arabic-speaking, traditionally nomadic peoples of desert regions in the Middle East and North Africa, known for pastoralism, tribal organization, oral poetry and a cont…

Beesha Darawiish (Dhulbahante) — Harti subclan of the Darod Beesha Darawiish Beesha Darawiish, or the Dhulbahante, is a Harti subclan of the Darod family in northern Somalia. Historically associated with a garaadship and the Dervish movement, they mainly in…

Belgae: tribes of northern Gaul and their legacy Belgae The Belgae were a loose confederation of tribes in northern Gaul and southern Britain in the late Iron Age. They left archaeological, historical, and toponymic traces, and gave the…

Berber (Amazigh): peoples, languages and cultural identity Berber Berber (Amazigh) refers to the indigenous peoples of North Africa, their related languages and scripts, cultural traditions, and modern movements for language and political recogni…

Berber languages (Amazigh or Tamazight) Berber languages A family of closely related Afroasiatic languages spoken across North Africa—known as Berber or Amazigh—covering varieties like Kabyle, Tashelhit and Tuareg, with own scripts and g…

Berber people (Imazighen) Berber people Imazighen, commonly called Berbers, are indigenous peoples of North Africa with distinctive languages, cultures and histories; they live across the Maghreb and maintain diverse tra…

Bhatti (Bhaati) — South Asian clan of Rajputs and Jats Bhatti Bhatti (Bhaati) is a clan found among Rajput and Jat communities in South Asia, with historical presence in Punjab, Rajasthan and Sindh and cultural memory in places such as Lahore…

Black Canadians Overview of Black Canadians: historical roots, regional communities, cultural contributions, demographic patterns, and contemporary social and policy issues affecting people of Afr…

Black people People commonly described as Black comprise diverse populations often linked to African ancestry; the designation spans many regions, cultures, histories, and social experiences wo…

Boer (South African farmers, settlers and historical community) Boer Boer: originally the Dutch word for 'farmer', applied to descendants of Dutch settlers in southern Africa. Covers origins, migrations (Great Trek), Boer republics, Anglo‑Boer wars,…

Boro people: an overview of the Bodo community of Assam Boro people The Boro (Bodo) are an ethnolinguistic group of northeastern India, primarily in Assam. This article covers their language, culture, history, social life, and modern political deve…