History

Axial Age: Parallel Transformations in Eurasian Thought (c. 8th–3rd century BCE) Axial Age Term coined by Karl Jaspers for a period (roughly 8th–3rd century BCE) when distinct regions across Eurasia developed new religious, ethical and philosophical ideas that shaped lat…

Ayyubid dynasty Kurdish-origin Sunni Muslim dynasty founded by Saladin that ruled Egypt, Syria and parts of Arabia and Iraq in the late 12th–mid 13th centuries, influential in politics, military h…

Aztec Empire A comprehensive overview of the Aztec Empire: its rise in central Mexico, political structure, society, economy, religion, and the events that led to its collapse in 1521.

Babylonia: an overview of its history, culture and legacy Babylonia Babylonia was a major Mesopotamian kingdom centered on Babylon. This article explains its geography, society, political history, cultural achievements and lasting influence on law,…

Baden — historical territory in southwest Germany Baden Baden was a territorial state in southwest Germany that evolved from a medieval margraviate (1112) into the Grand Duchy (1806–1918), was reorganized after WWII, and became part of…

Baekje: ancient Korean kingdom (18 BCE–660 CE) Baekje Baekje was a major Korean kingdom from the late first millennium BCE to 660 CE, noted for maritime trade, cultural exchange with Japan and China, and distinctive Buddhist-era art a…

Balfour Declaration (1917): British support for a Jewish national home in Palestine Balfour Declaration of 1917 A 1917 British government statement endorsing a Jewish national home in Palestine. It shaped British policy, influenced the League of Nations Mandate, and affected the later Arab–I…

Bantustan: homelands of apartheid-era South Africa and South West Africa Bantustan Bantustans were territories created under apartheid to segregate black populations into nominal homelands. They were economically marginal, internationally unrecognised and were ab…

Banu Hilal: Bedouin Migration and Its Impact on the Maghreb Banu Hilal A concise overview of the Banu Hilal, a confederation of Arab nomads whose 11th-century westward migration reshaped North African demographics, politics, language, and culture.

Battle of Manzikert (1071) Battle of Manzikert The 1071 clash where Seljuq forces routed the Byzantine army, captured Emperor Romanos IV, and opened Anatolia to Turkish settlement, triggering major political changes in Byzantiu…

Belgian Revolution (1830–1839): origins, course and international settlement Belgian Revolution The Belgian Revolution (1830–1839) was the successful secession of the southern provinces from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and the creation of the independent Kingdom of…

Belle Époque A period of Western history (c.1871–1914) marked by relative peace, industrial and cultural growth, imperial expansion, and artistic innovation before the upheavals of World War I.

Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948–1949) Berlin Blockade A Cold War confrontation in which the Soviet Union cut surface access to West Berlin in 1948–49 and Western Allies sustained the city by a massive airlift, shaping postwar Europe a…

Berlin Wall: history, structure and legacy Berlin Wall Barrier that separated East and West Berlin from 1961 to 1989; its construction, daily effects, fall on November 9, 1989, and its role as a Cold War symbol.

Bohuslän: Swedish coastal province and island-studded archipelago Bohuslän Bohuslän is a historic province on Sweden's west coast, noted for its granite archipelago, maritime history, Bronze Age rock art, and a coastline shaped by glaciation and seafaring…

Border states (American Civil War) Union states that permitted slavery but did not secede in the American Civil War: Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and later West Virginia; strategically and socially distin…

Bosnian War (1992–1995): conflict, consequences and legacy Bosnian War Multi-party armed conflict in Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1992 to 1995, marked by ethnic violence, mass displacement, international intervention and legal aftermath culminating in…

Bosporan Kingdom (Kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus) Bosporan Kingdom A Hellenistic-era state on the Black Sea coasts centred on Panticapaeum (modern Kerch). Known for Greek culture blended with local peoples, grain exports, coinage, and long surviva…

Bourbon Restoration Periods in the 19th century when branches of the Bourbon dynasty were returned to power in France, Spain and the Two Sicilies, reshaping post‑Napoleonic Europe and provoking libera…

Brazil in World War II: military contributions, diplomacy, and domestic impact Brazil during World War Two Brazil joined the Allies in 1942, sent an expeditionary force to fight in Italy, and supported Atlantic convoy and air operations; the war accelerated economic change and altered B…

British Empire: origins, structure, history and legacy British Empire Overview of the British Empire: its origins, geographic scope, institutions, role in global trade and slavery, processes of expansion and decline, and its enduring cultural and leg…

British Hong Kong: history, structure, and legacy British Hong Kong Overview of British Hong Kong from establishment in the 19th century to the 1997 handover, including territory growth, governance, wartime interruption, economy and cultural legacy…

British India: administration, history and legacy British India Areas of South Asia governed by the English and British from Company rule to the British Raj (17th century–1947), including administration, princely states, territorial extent and…

British Mandate of Palestine (1920–1948) British Mandate of Palestine British administration of Palestine under a League of Nations mandate (1920–1948). Oversaw immigration, institutions and infrastructure amid rising Arab and Jewish nationalisms, en…

British North America: territories, development, and legacy British North America British North America refers to the British possessions on the North American continent before and during the 18th–19th centuries, a shifting collection of colonies and territories…

British occupation zone in Germany (1945–1955) British occupation zone in Germany One of four Allied occupation zones after 1945, the British zone covered northern and north‑west Germany. It administered reconstruction, denazification, and economic recovery and…

British Raj (1858–1947): Crown rule in South Asia British Raj The British Raj refers to direct British Crown rule in the Indian subcontinent from 1858 to 1947, its structure, territories, administration, and legacy, including partition and la…

British Uganda Programme (Uganda Scheme) British Uganda Programme Early 20th‑century British proposal to offer a tract of East Africa as a possible refuge for persecuted Jews; proposed to Zionist leaders in 1903 and debated at the Sixth Zionist C…

Bronze Age: metallurgy, cultures, and historical significance Bronze Age Period when bronze—an alloy of copper and tin—transformed toolmaking, trade and societies; varied regionally from early Near Eastern origins to later European developments and even…

Buchenwald concentration camp Buchenwald was a large Nazi concentration camp near Weimar, Germany (1937–1945). It held political prisoners, Jews, Roma, POWs and others for forced labor; after the war it became…

Buddhist Crisis in South Vietnam (1963) Buddhist crisis A 1963 political and religious crisis in South Vietnam in which Buddhist groups protested discriminatory policies of President Ngô Đình Diệm's government, resulting in mass demonst…

Bun'an (Japanese era, 1444–1449) Bun'an Bun'an (文安) was a Japanese era name from February 1444 to July 1449 during Emperor Go-Hanazono's reign, situated in the Muromachi period under the Ashikaga shogunate.

Bun'ei (文永): Japanese era name, 1264–1275 Bun'ei Bun'ei (1264–1275) was a Japanese nengō spanning the reigns of Emperors Kameyama and Go-Uda. It is best known for the 1274 Mongol invasion (the Bun'ei no eki) and developments unde…

Bun'ō: a short Japanese era (April 1260–February 1261) Bun'ō Bun'ō was a brief Japanese era from April 1260 to February 1261 during the reign of Emperor Kameyama, one of many nengō used to mark years in the Kamakura period.

Bunchū (文中): Southern Court era name in Japan, 1372–1375 Bunchū Bunchū was a Southern Court nengō used during the Nanboku-chō period (1372–1375). This article explains its dates, rulers, context in the rival courts era, and its historical signi…

Bunji (1185–1190) — Japanese era of Emperor Go-Toba Bunji (era) Bunji was a Japanese era name from August 1185 to April 1190 under Emperor Go-Toba. It spans the end of the Genpei War and the consolidation of Minamoto power that led to the Kamak…

Bunka (Japanese era, 1804–1818) Bunka Bunka was a Japanese era name (nengō) from January 1804 to April 1818 during the late Edo period, spanning the reigns of Emperors Kōkaku and Ninkō and noted for cultural activity k…

Bunki (文亀): Japanese era, 1501–1504 Bunki Bunki (文亀) was a Japanese era name from February 1501 to February 1504 during the reign of Emperor Go‑Kashiwabara, used for dating documents and situated in the late Muromachi peri…

Bunkyū (1861–1864): a late-Edo period Japanese era name Bunkyū Bunkyū (文久) was the Japanese era from February 1861 to February 1864 under Emperor Kōmei. It marked increased foreign pressure, domain clashes and incidents such as the Namamugi Af…

Bunmei (Japanese era, 1469–1487) Bunmei Bunmei (文明) was a Japanese era name from April 1469 to July 1487 during the reign of Emperor Go-Tsuchimikado, spanning the late Ōnin War and a period of political fragmentation and…

Bunna: Japanese era of the Northern Court (1352–1356) Bunna Bunna (文和) was a Japanese era name of the Northern Court during the Nanboku-chō period, spanning September 1352 to March 1356 and coinciding with rival claims to the throne in Kyot…

Bunpō: Japanese era name (1317–1319) Bunpō Bunpō (文保) was a short Japanese era from February 1317 to April 1319 during the late Kamakura period, covering the reigns of Emperors Hanazono and Go‑Daigo and marked by imperial s…

Bunroku (Japanese era, 1592–1596) Bunroku Bunroku was a Japanese era name from December 1592 to 1596 during Emperor Go-Yōzei's reign, overlapping Toyotomi Hideyoshi's rule and the opening years of the Imjin War. The name m…

Bunryaku — Japanese era name (nengō), November 1234–September 1235 Bunryaku Bunryaku (also Bunreki) is a brief Japanese era name from Nov 1234 to Sep 1235 during Emperor Shijō's reign, situated in the Kamakura period and illustrating the frequent era chang…

Bunsei era (Japan, 1818–1830) Bunsei Bunsei was a Japanese era during the late Edo period (April 1818–December 1830), associated with Emperor Ninkō and Tokugawa Ienari; noted for a distinctive cultural flowering and g…

Bunshō: a brief Japanese era (1466–1467) Bunshō Bunshō (文正) was a short Japanese era name lasting February 1466 to March 1467, in the late Muromachi period under Emperor Go‑Tsuchimikado and during Ashikaga Yoshimasa's shogunate.

Burgundian Netherlands: Late Medieval political and cultural entity (1384–1482) Burgundian Netherlands A late medieval composite polity in the Low Countries ruled by the Valois dukes of Burgundy (and their Habsburg heirs), covering much of present-day Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxem…

Byzantine calendar (Anno Mundi) — structure, history, and legacy Byzantine calendar A calendar era used by the Byzantine state and Eastern Orthodox churches that counts years from a creation epoch (1 Sept 5509 BC) and begins the civil year on 1 September.