Economics

Economic liberalism Economic liberalism is an ideology favoring private property, market-based allocation, limited state intervention, and policies such as deregulation, free trade and privatization,…

Economic migration: causes, types, history and effects Economic migration Movement of people driven primarily by employment, income or living‑standard differences; covers internal and international flows, causes, impacts, and policy responses.

Economic nationalism: state control, policies, and modern debates Economic nationalism Economic nationalism emphasizes national control over the economy—trade, capital and labor policy—using tariffs, subsidies or nationalization to protect interests and pursue strate…

Economic sector An overview of economic sectors: definitions, common classifications (primary, secondary, tertiary and beyond), historical development, measurement, examples, and key distinctions.

Economic stagnation: causes, characteristics and policy responses Economic stagnation Long‑run, persistent slow growth of an economy marked by weak demand, low investment and elevated unemployment, and the policies used to counter it.

Economic surplus Overview of economic surplus: consumer and producer surplus, total surplus, graphical interpretation, history, policy effects, and limitations in welfare analysis.

Economic system A structured set of institutions, rules and practices that coordinate production, allocation, exchange and distribution of goods and services within a society or territory.

Economics: the study of scarcity, choice, and the allocation of resources Economics Overview of economics: core concepts (scarcity, choice, supply and demand), history, branches (micro/macro), methods and common applications in policy, business and everyday life.

Economist A professional who studies economic behavior, builds models, analyzes data, and advises on policy, business strategy, and market outcomes.

Economy: systems of production, exchange, and finance Economy A clear overview of what an economy is, its main sectors, the role of money and finance, historical development, types of economic systems, and modern trends and measures.

Economy class (travel) Economy class Economy class, also called coach or standard class, is the basic fare tier for air, rail and many sea journeys, offering the most affordable seating with limited amenities compared…

Economy of Azerbaijan: overview, sectors, and development Economy of Azerbaijan Azerbaijan's economy is driven by oil and gas but includes agriculture, industry and services. This article explains structure, history, key sectors, reforms, challenges and notabl…

Economy of India: overview, sectors, history and contemporary challenges Economy of India An accessible overview of India's economy: size and structure, major sectors, post‑1990s reforms, growth drivers such as services and IT, and persistent social and infrastructural…

Economy of Pakistan A concise overview of Pakistan’s economy: major sectors (textiles, agriculture, services), trade patterns, historical development, structural challenges, and outlook for reform and…

Economy of the United States Overview of the United States economy: structure, history, global role, major sectors, strengths, and contemporary challenges in a neutral, concise summary.

Edmond Malinvaud: French Economist and Pioneer of Disequilibrium Theory Edmond Malinvaud Edmond Malinvaud (1923–2015) was a leading French economist known for disequilibrium macroeconomics, influential work on unemployment and welfare theory, and as the first president…

Elasticity (economics): measuring responsiveness of supply, demand and income Elasticity (economics) Elasticity quantifies how one economic variable responds to changes in another—most often price or income. Explains types, measurement, determinants, examples, history and policy r…

Elasticity of substitution Measure of how readily one good or input can be replaced by another; used in economics and marketing to describe consumer choice, production, and competitive pressures.

Electronic commerce (e-commerce) Electronic commerce Electronic commerce (e-commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services using electronic systems, primarily the internet, encompassing platforms, payments, logistics, and…

Electronic money (e‑money): stored-value payments and digital cash alternatives Electronic money Electronic money (e‑money) is value stored electronically and used for payments via cards, phones or accounts; typically fiat‑backed and regulated, widely used for transit, retail…

Embargo: state-imposed trade restriction as a political and economic tool Embargo A government-imposed prohibition or restriction on trade with a target state or territory, used to exert political pressure. Covers definition, forms, history, effects, enforcement…

Empty Homes Tax A municipal tax on residential properties left unoccupied for extended periods, intended to discourage speculation, boost rental supply and raise funds for housing programs.

Entrepôt: historical trading hubs and modern equivalents Entrepôt An entrepôt is a trading post where goods are imported, stored, and re‑exported without immediate tariffs. Historically central to long‑distance commerce, today they resemble free…

Entrepreneur: Roles, Traits, History, and Economic Importance Entrepreneur An entrepreneur organizes and manages ventures to exploit opportunities. This article explains defining traits, types, historical theory, the startup process, funding options, risk…

Environmental economics: principles, instruments, and policy applications Environmental economics Study of how economic tools, institutions, and incentives address environmental problems such as pollution, resource depletion, and ecosystem services to improve social welfare and…

Equilibrium market price The market price at which quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. Also called the market-clearing price; it arises from supply and demand interaction and changes when those sch…

Estonian mark (1918–1928) Estonian mark The Estonian mark was the first modern national currency of independent Estonia, used after 1918 and subdivided into 100 penns; it was later replaced by the kroon during monetary r…

Ethiopian birr (ETB) — currency of Ethiopia Ethiopian birr The Ethiopian birr (ISO code ETB) is Ethiopia's national currency, divided into 100 santim. Issued by the National Bank of Ethiopia, it appears in coins and banknotes and is centra…

Eugene Fama American economist noted for empirical asset pricing and the efficient-market hypothesis; long-time University of Chicago professor and co-recipient of the 2013 Nobel Prize in Econ…

Euro — currency of the euro area and its history, design, and use Euro The euro is the common currency used by eurozone countries. This article explains its denominations, history, legal status, designs, institutional framework and key distinctions fr…

Euro sign (€) — symbol of the euro currency Euro sign The euro sign (€) is the typographic symbol for the euro, the common currency used by the Eurozone. Overview, design, history, encoding, keyboard entry, and usage conventions are c…

European Central Bank (ECB) European Central Bank The European Central Bank (ECB) manages the euro's monetary policy, issues banknotes, oversees aspects of banking supervision and payment systems, and acts as the central bank for…

Eurozone (Euro area) Eurozone The Eurozone is the group of EU countries that use the euro. This article explains its institutions, membership rules, history, economic role, and key distinctions.

Exchange rate (foreign exchange rate) Exchange rate The exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another. This article explains how rates are determined, historical regimes, main types, and why they matter for trade, i…

Excise (excise tax) Excise Excise is an indirect tax levied on specific goods or activities—commonly fuel, alcohol, and tobacco—collected from producers or sellers and often used to raise revenue or discoura…

Expenditure: types, accounting treatment, and economic role Expenditure Overview of expenditures: definitions, capital vs revenue spending, accounting treatment (capitalization, depreciation), examples for firms and governments, and key distinctions.

Experience economy An overview of the experience economy: its features, history, examples, and how businesses design memorable, staged and co‑created customer experiences.

Exploitation: uses, forms, history, and social impacts Exploitation Exploitation is using resources, people, or situations for advantage. Often harmful and tied to power imbalances, it appears in labor, resource, social, political and technical con…

Export (International Trade of Goods) Export An export is a good sent from one country to be sold or used in another. This article explains what exports are, their types, historical development, examples, and why they matter…

Factors of Production in Economics Factors of production Overview of the inputs used to produce goods and services: classical categories, modern additions, characteristics, returns, historical development, and practical examples.

Fair trade: principles, products, history and impact Fair trade Fair trade is a global movement promoting better pay, working conditions and environmental stewardship in supply chains, using standards, certification and market access to support…

Farthing (English coin) A small historic British coin equal to one quarter of a penny, issued from medieval times through the mid-20th century; notable for changing metals, distinctive designs and its pla…

Finance: Principles, Branches, History, and Practical Uses Finance An accessible overview of finance: its main branches (personal, corporate, public), history, key functions, common tools, and why it matters to individuals and organizations.

Financial capital Monetary assets and instruments that represent purchasing power—cash, deposits, stocks, bonds and tradable investments; roles, markets, risks, measurement, and public policy debate…

Financial crisis of 2007–2008: causes, timeline and consequences Financial crisis of 2007–2008 A concise overview of the 2007–2008 global financial crisis: origins in housing and credit, key events like Lehman’s collapse, policy responses and the crisis’ lasting economic and…

Financial Endowment A financial endowment is a fund of donated capital invested to provide long-term support for an organization. It preserves capital and generates income to fund programs, scholarshi…

Finnish markka (Suomen markka) Finnish markka The Finnish markka was Finland's national currency from 1860 until it was replaced by the euro. It was subdivided into 100 penniä, abbreviated mk (international code FIM), and issu…

First World (Developed World) First World A geopolitical and economic label for countries with advanced economies, high human development and infrastructure; originally a Cold War term now often replaced by 'developed worl…