Philosophy

Logic: the study of correct reasoning, systems, and applications Logic An overview of logic: its basic concepts, historical roots, main systems, forms of reasoning, uses in science and everyday life, and common distinctions such as validity, soundness…

Ludwig Wittgenstein: From Tractatus to Philosophical Investigations Ludwig Wittgenstein Overview of Ludwig Wittgenstein's philosophical evolution from the Tractatus to Philosophical Investigations, contrasting his early formal theory of language with his later meaning…

Lust: meaning, history, and cultural perspectives Lust Lust is an intense desire, most commonly sexual but also used for strong wants like a lust for power or life. This article explains its meaning, history, psychological traits, and…

Lyceum: From Aristotle's School to Modern Secondary Education Lyceum A concise overview of the Lyceum: its origin in classical Athens, Aristotle's Peripatetic school, later developments and modern meanings as a secondary school and public lecture in…

Mahamudra — the 'Great Seal' meditation of Tibetan Buddhism Mahamudra Mahamudra is a Tibetan Buddhist tradition of meditation and view emphasizing direct, nonconceptual recognition of the mind’s nature, taught especially in the Kagyu, Gelug and Sakya…

Mahasiddha: Great siddhas of Tantra in South Asian and Tibetan traditions Mahasiddha Mahasiddhas are celebrated tantric adepts in South Asian and Tibetan traditions, known for unconventional practice, attainment of siddhis, pith teachings and lives recorded in song…

Man and Superman: A Comedy and a Philosophy by George Bernard Shaw Man and Superman A 1903–1905 dramatic work by George Bernard Shaw that mixes satire, social theory and the Don Juan legend; notable for its long 'Don Juan in Hell' scene and enduring stage and film…

Manifest Destiny: 19th-Century American Expansionism and Its Legacy Manifest destiny Manifest Destiny was a 19th-century belief that the United States had a providential right to expand across North America; it shaped policy, fueled conflict, and remains a conteste…

Maoism: ideology, history, and global influence Maoism A summary of Maoism — its principles, development under Mao Zedong, role in the People’s Republic of China, and influence on insurgent movements and political thought worldwide.

Master race: concept, history, and consequences of racial supremacist ideology Master race An overview of the 'master race' idea: its origins in 19th-century racial theories, 20th-century political uses, characteristics, social consequences, and why it is discredited and…

Materialism (philosophy): the view that matter is the fundamental substance Materialism Philosophical doctrine that reality consists fundamentally of matter or physical entities; covers definitions, history, major variants, relation to mind and science, criticisms, an…

Megali Idea: Greek national aspiration for a Byzantine-centered state Megali Idea The Megali Idea was a 19th–20th century Greek nationalist principle aiming to unite historically Greek lands and recover the legacy of the Byzantine capital, influencing wars, dipl…

Metaphysics: study of being, reality, and fundamental structure of the world Metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies existence, the categories of being, causation, space‑time, possibility, and the basic structure of reality.

Mettā (loving-kindness) — Buddhist practice of benevolence Mettā Mettā, often rendered as loving-kindness, is a fundamental Buddhist quality and meditation practice cultivating goodwill toward oneself and others.

Michel Foucault: life, methods, and influence on modern thought Michel Foucault Overview of Michel Foucault’s work, methods, major writings, core concepts (power, discourse, biopolitics), institutional studies, historical development, and enduring influence.

Milesian School: Early Ionian Natural Philosophy Milesian school An overview of the Milesian school, a 6th–5th century BC group of Ionian thinkers centered in Miletus who sought natural explanations for the world through principles proposed by T…

Monism: Philosophical View of Unity Monism Monism is the doctrine that reality is ultimately one unified substance or principle. It appears in metaphysics, religion, and science as various forms such as material, ideal, and…

Moral equivalence: definition, forms, and how to spot the fallacy Moral equivalence Moral equivalence is an informal fallacy that equates distinct actions or agents as equally good or bad. This article explains the concept, common forms, examples, consequences, an…

Moral purchasing (ethical consumerism) Moral purchasing Moral purchasing is choosing goods and services guided by ethical considerations—labor, environment, animal welfare, community impact—rather than price or convenience alone.

Morality: concepts, sources, and social roles Morality An overview of morality: definitions, major philosophical approaches, historical development, common sources of moral beliefs, and how morality shapes law, culture, and personal ch…

Nastika: Heterodox Schools and the Rejection of Vedic Authority Nastika Nastika denotes Indian philosophical traditions that deny the authority of the Vedas. It contrasts with āstika and covers schools such as Charvaka, Buddhism and Jainism, with nuanc…

Neijia (Internal) martial arts Neijia Neijia, or internal Chinese martial arts, emphasize internal power, breath, intent, and alignment. Includes Taijiquan, Xingyiquan, Baguazhang and related systems; distinct from ext…

Neutral: meanings, contexts, and distinctions Neutral A concise guide to the word "neutral"—its origins and principal senses in politics, law, science, design, language and everyday technology, plus important distinctions and examples…

Nihilism: concepts, history, and variations Nihilism Overview of nihilism: its principal forms, historical development (notably Russian and Nietzschean debates), cultural influence, criticisms, and contemporary relevance in philosoph…

Noble savage: idea, history, and cultural legacy Noble savage Overview of the 'noble savage' concept: its meaning, development in early modern Europe, examples, criticisms, and lasting influence on literature, philosophy, and colonial discour…

Non sequitur: definition, examples, and how to recognize it Non sequitur A non sequitur is an inference whose conclusion does not follow from its premises. It can be a formal logical error, an irrelevant conclusion in argument, or an abrupt unrelated re…

Nonviolence: principles, methods, history and contemporary practice Nonviolence Nonviolence is a philosophy and strategy that rejects physical force and promotes peaceful methods—education, civil disobedience, conscientious objection and other tactics—to pursu…

Object: definitions, varieties, and uses across disciplines Object A comprehensive overview of the term 'object'—its meanings in philosophy, grammar, science, computing, mathematics and everyday usage, with examples and key distinctions.

Objectivism: meanings, philosophical forms, and cultural uses Objectivism Overview of Objectivism in philosophy, moral theory, Ayn Rand’s movement, and the Objectivist poets, including definitions, history, core features, and distinctions from related vi…

Objectivism (Ayn Rand) Objectivism is a philosophical system developed by Ayn Rand that asserts objective reality, reason as the sole means of knowledge, rational self-interest as ethics, and laissez‑fai…

Objectivity: meanings, criteria, history, and practical roles Objectivity Overview of objectivity: concepts, common criteria, historical development, roles in science, journalism and law, criticisms, and practices that foster impartial inquiry.

Objectivity (philosophy): concept, forms, and debates Objectivity (philosophy) An overview of philosophical objectivity: the claim that reality or truth can be known independently of individual perspectives; its types, role in science, history, examples, and…

Occam's razor A methodological principle favoring simpler explanations over more complex ones; widely used in philosophy, science, and everyday reasoning but not a proof of truth.

Occult: Concepts, Practices, and Historical Context Occult An overview of the occult—hidden knowledge, its practices, history, and cultural roles—covering common elements, organizations, uses, and distinctions from mainstream religion and…

On Denoting — Bertrand Russell's theory of descriptions On Denoting A clear, concise exposition of Bertrand Russell's 1905 essay 'On Denoting', its analysis of definite and indefinite descriptions, its technical move to quantificational form, and i…

Ontology (philosophy): the study of being, existence, and reality Ontology Ontology is the branch of metaphysics that investigates what exists, how entities are categorized, and the fundamental structures of reality and being.

Opinion — personal and public views, meaning and uses Opinion An opinion is a personal or collective judgment about something. This article explains what opinions are, how they differ from facts, how they are formed, and how they are measured…

Optimism: meaning, forms, history, psychology, and practical effects Optimism Optimism is a general tendency to expect or interpret events positively. This article explains types of optimism, philosophical roots, psychological research, everyday uses and lim…

Ordinary language philosophy: method, history, and influence Ordinary language philosophy A concise overview of ordinary language philosophy: its approach to meaning and use, key figures and history, typical methods and examples, influence on analytic philosophy, and co…

Pacifism: Principles, History, and Practices Pacifism Pacifism opposes war and violence and promotes nonviolent conflict resolution. This article outlines its principles, historical development, varieties, common practices (like consc…

Paradigm: frameworks in science, rhetoric, and linguistics Paradigm An accessible overview of the term 'paradigm': its origins in Greek, roles in philosophy of science, rhetoric and linguistics, historical uses, examples, and how it differs from re…

Paradox: concepts, types, history and approaches to resolution Paradox An overview of paradoxes: what they are, main types, historical examples (Zeno, Liar, Russell), their role in logic and mathematics, and standard ways to analyze or resolve them.

Pascal's Wager: a pragmatic argument about belief and risk Pascal's Wager An explanation of Pascal's Wager: its formulation, historical background, decision‑theoretic rationale, common objections (many‑gods, sincerity, evidence), and its influence on tho…

Paulo Freire: Brazilian educator and founder of critical pedagogy Paulo Freire Brazilian educator Paulo Freire (1921–1997) developed critical pedagogy, promoting dialogic, problem-posing education, literacy campaigns, and concepts such as conscientization and…

Peace: concepts, history, and how societies pursue harmony Peace An expanded overview of peace: definitions, types, historical institutions, methods for maintaining peace, notable examples, and why justice matters.

Pessimism Pessimism is a general tendency to expect unfavorable outcomes; it appears as a personal outlook, a philosophical position, and a psychological pattern with distinct forms and effe…

Phenomenology: the study of conscious experience and lived meaning Phenomenology Phenomenology is a philosophical approach that describes how things appear in lived experience, prioritizing first-person perception, embodiment, intentionality and everyday meanin…

Philanthropy: Purpose, Forms, History and Modern Practices Philanthropy Philanthropy is voluntary action—often financial—to promote the public good. This article explains its meaning, forms, history, methods, notable examples, and contemporary debates.