Philosophy

Transhumanism: ideas, technologies, history, and ethical questions Transhumanism Transhumanism is an intellectual and cultural movement advocating the use of technology to enhance human capacities, reduce suffering, and address aging, disease, and other biologi…

Trial and error: method of problem solving and learning Trial and error Trial and error is a basic problem‑solving and learning method involving repeated attempts and adjustments until success; used in psychology, everyday reasoning, engineering and he…

Trilemma A trilemma is a problem presenting three options, each with significant drawbacks; used in philosophy, economics, technology and decision theory to describe intractable choices.

True name (concept of an essential or secret name) True name A true name is a name believed to reveal or embody the real nature of a person, spirit, or thing. It appears across philosophy, religion, magic, and literature as a source of ident…

Trust (interpersonal and social concept) Trust An overview of trust: its nature, components, history, uses, and distinctions in personal, institutional, and technological contexts, with guidance on loss and rebuilding.

Truth value: meaning and uses in logic and reasoning Truth value The truth value of a proposition expresses how true it is within a logical system. Covers classical two-valued logic, multi-valued and fuzzy approaches, history, examples, and prac…

Truthiness Truthiness is the quality of seeming true based on intuition or belief rather than objective evidence. Coined in popular satire, it describes a cultural tendency to prefer feelings…

Two wrongs make a right — proverb, fallacy and moral debate Two wrongs make a right Examination of the saying 'two wrongs make a right', its counter-proverb, logical classification as an informal fallacy, everyday examples, moral and legal distinctions, and altern…

Type: meanings and uses across philosophy, mathematics, computing and social science Type An overview of the concept of 'type' in different fields: philosophical categories, logical and mathematical types, computing data and type systems, and sociological typification a…

Unintended consequences: causes, types, history, and examples Unintended consequences Unexpected outcomes that arise from deliberate actions across policy, economics, technology and daily life; explains causes, categories, notable examples, history and ways to antic…

University of Chicago: Overview, history, and influence University of Chicago Private research university in Hyde Park, Chicago, founded in 1890. Known for a rigorous Core curriculum, influential research in economics and sociology, and several leading profe…

Utilitarianism: principles, history, variants, and practical issues Utilitarianism A clear introduction to utilitarianism: its core idea of maximizing utility, historical development, major variants, common applications, and prominent criticisms and distinctions.

Utopia: concept, history, and cultural significance Utopia An overview of utopia as an imagined ideal society: origins, meanings, types, literary and real-world attempts, critiques and its place in modern thought.

Validity: meanings, uses, and distinctions in logic, law, and everyday speech Validity An overview of validity: its general sense of correctness, formal role in logic, legal enforceability, everyday uses, key features, and common confusions.

Value (personal and cultural) A clear introduction to personal and cultural values: what they are, how they function, how they develop and change, and how groups negotiate and prioritize competing principles.

Value judgments: distinguishing normative assessments from empirical claims Value judgement Examines value judgments versus empirical claims, explaining how normative assessments reflect preferences, ethics or aesthetics, contrast with factual statements, and why this dis…

Vamachara (Left‑Hand Path): Tantric practices beyond conventional norms Vamachara Vamachara, the Left‑Hand Path in Tantra, designates ritual paths that transgress social and purity norms. This article explains its features, practices, historical context, aims, a…

Veganism: philosophy, diet, history, and practical considerations Veganism Veganism excludes animal-derived foods and products for ethical, environmental, or health reasons. This article explains what vegans avoid, common foods and substitutes, history, n…

Vienna Circle: Logical Empiricism and the Rise of Analytic Philosophy Vienna Circle A concise overview of the Vienna Circle: its members, core ideas in logical empiricism, historical development, influence on philosophy of science, and key controversies.

Visionary: meanings, states, methods and historical examples Visionary Overview of visionary experiences and uses: definitions, common methods to enter visionary states, cultural and religious interpretations, notable historical examples, and modern m…

Want (desire): distinction from need and role in economics and everyday life Want An overview of 'want' as a desire distinct from a need, its features, economic role, cultural uses, practical implications, and guidance for distinguishing wants from needs.

Watchmaker analogy A philosophical and theological argument that infers an intelligent designer from perceived design in nature; developed by William Paley and debated through Hume, Darwin, and moder…

Western philosophy: history, methods, and enduring influence Western philosophy Survey of Western philosophy: its origins in ancient Greece, major periods and movements, characteristic methods, cross-cultural contacts, and its influence on law, science and pol…

Why I Am Not a Christian — Bertrand Russell's critique of religion Why I Am Not a Christian An accessible overview of Bertrand Russell's essay and lecture 'Why I Am Not a Christian', summarizing its main arguments, context, reception, and where to read further.

Wisdom: definition, characteristics, cultural roles and cultivation Wisdom An overview of wisdom—what it means, how it differs from knowledge or intelligence, its cultural expressions and symbols, practical uses, and ways people cultivate it.

World peace: concept, history, challenges and importance World peace An encyclopedic overview of world peace — its meanings, historical efforts, benefits, obstacles, and how institutions and ideas contribute to the pursuit of a more peaceful world.

Xenophanes of Colophon: poet, critic, and early Greek philosopher Xenophanes Pre-Socratic thinker (c.570–c.475 BCE) whose surviving fragments show religious criticism, natural speculation and epistemic caution; remembered for attacking anthropomorphic gods…

Xenophobia: definitions, causes, history, impacts and responses Xenophobia Xenophobia is prejudice or fear directed at people perceived as foreign or different. This article explains its forms, historical roots, causes, social consequences, legal response…

Yin and Yang (Taijitu): The Chinese notion of complementary opposites Yin and yang Yin and yang is an ancient Chinese concept of dual, interconnected forces symbolized by the Taijitu. It underpins Taoist thought and influences Chinese medicine, cosmology, martial…

Yoga: Origins, Practices, Styles, Health Effects and Cultural Context Yoga Survey of yoga’s origins in South Asia, core practices (asana, pranayama, meditation), main modern styles, health and safety considerations, and cultural context for practice and t…

Zeno of Citium — founder of Stoic philosophy Zeno of Citium Greek philosopher Zeno of Citium (c.334–c.264 BC) founded Stoicism in Athens. His teachings emphasized virtue, rational self-control, and living according to nature; his school sha…

Zeno's paradoxes Ancient philosophical puzzles by Zeno of Elea challenging the coherence of motion, plurality, space and time; influential in philosophy, mathematics and physics and foundational fo…