Paradigm

A paradigm (plural paradigms or paradigmata) is a fundamental way of thinking. The word comes from the Greek παράδειγμα parádeigma (from παρά pará "beside" as well as δείκνυμι deíknymi "to show, make comprehensible"). Translated, it means "example, model, pattern" or "delimitation, explanatory model, prejudice"; also "world view" or "world view".

In ancient rhetoric, it meant an incident cited as positive or negative evidence for a dogmatic argument or moral doctrine. Since the late 18th century, paradigm has referred to a particular kind of worldview or doctrinal view. The term was introduced by Georg Christoph Lichtenberg. According to Ludwig Wittgenstein, paradigms are patterns or standards against which experience is compared and judged. They are prior to experience (a priori) and provide orientation.

In the modern history of science, the term was introduced by Thomas S. Kuhn. He uses it to describe the totality of basic views that make up a scientific discipline in a historical period. Examples of such a "fundamental world view" are the geocentric world view or the heliocentric world view. These basic views pre-determine which questions are scientifically permissible and what can be regarded as a scientifically satisfactory solution. According to Kuhn, scientific revolutions in the natural sciences are associated with changes in paradigms. Finally, the concept of the "paradigm" was also introduced into discourses critical of the times, for example by Fritjof Capra, whereby thought processes of the esoteric New Age movement formed the basis.

Definition and example

For example, a common textbook definition today is: "A scientific paradigm is a reasonably coherent set of theoretical guiding principles, questions, and methods, shared by many scientists, that outlasts longer historical periods in the development of a science." (Jens B. Asendorpf) The replacement of one paradigm by another is called a paradigm shift.

Paradigms reflect a certain generally accepted consensus on assumptions and ideas that make it possible to offer solutions to a variety of questions. In science, model concepts are often used in this context to explain phenomena. In his book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, the American science theorist Thomas S. Kuhn defines a "scientific paradigm" as:

• that which is observed and verified
• the type of questions to be asked and examined in relation to a topic
• how these questions should be asked
• how the results of the scientific investigation should be interpreted

Usage examples

In philosophy, for example, different schools of thought in epistemology or in the theory of action are based on different paradigms. For example, the theory of communicative action developed by Habermas or Luhmann's sociological systems theory is based on the "communication paradigm"; on the other hand, the philosophy of labour and the philosophy of practice refer to a "production paradigm" postulated by Marx.

In computer science, one speaks of the "paradigm of software reusability" (a so-called programming paradigm); in business, of the paradigm of teamwork or lean production.

Organizational theory is familiar with the concept of corporate culture. One of the most cited models is Gerry Johnson's (1998) cultural network, described as a "network of internal structures and processes that continuously both create and reinforce an organization's self-perception." The seven elements of the culture network mentioned are: Stories and Myths, Symbols, Power Structures, Organizational Structures, Control Systems, Rituals and Routines, and Paradigm.

In behavioural science, paradigm refers to a classic prejudice: an emotional, absolute evaluation (good/bad) before a rational processing of information can take place. Paradigm paralysis (a paralysis caused by prejudice) means that logical thought processes - and subsequently consistent action - can be interrupted, paralysed or prevented by prejudices (paradigms).

In psychosomatic medicine, the term machine paradigm is used by Thure von Uexküll to distinguish the more holistic view of psychosomatics from purely organically oriented medicine. Organ medicine had adopted the reductionist machine model through the example of physics. Physics had succeeded in developing "a self-contained doctrine of mechanical forces and in freeing the concept of causality from the metaphysical notions still clinging to it."

In the 1980s, the physicist and esotericist Fritjof Capra used the term "paradigm shift" to describe the turn he postulated toward a harmonious liberal and holistic new age.