Philanthropy

Philanthropy (ancient Greek φιλανθρωπία philanthrōpía, from φίλος phílos "friend" and ἄνθρωπος ánthrōpos "human being") is understood as thinking and behaving in a philanthropic way. The motive sometimes mentioned is a love encompassing all mankind, the "general love of man." Materially, this attitude is expressed in the support of those in need of assistance who do not belong to the circle of relatives and friends of the philanthropist, or of institutions that serve the common good. The image of philanthropy is shaped above all by the large-scale actions of very wealthy individuals.

The term originates from antiquity. At that time, the term usually referred to a benevolent, generous attitude of the noble, powerful and wealthy towards their economically weaker fellow citizens. Philanthropy also included significant voluntary contributions by wealthy citizens for the common good. The benefactors thereby increased their prestige, they could expect gratitude and public honours. First and foremost, it was hoped that the ruler would prove himself to be a philanthropist through his leniency and willingness to help.

In the era of enlightenment, the concepts of "human friendship" and "human love" were taken up. Philosophers elevated philanthropy to a central component of the definition of the nature of man. In this context, the concept of a natural philanthropic disposition or "humanity" was combined with impulses stemming from the Christian demand for charity. In terms of philanthropic practice, however, Enlightenment circles distanced themselves from the traditional ideal of charity out of love for one's neighbor. Charitable relief was to be replaced by the elimination of the causes of social ills. Much was expected from educational measures. In pedagogy, philanthropism, a German reform movement of the 18th century, was groundbreaking. The philanthropists saw education for general philanthropy as a primary pedagogical goal.

In modern philosophical and psychological discourse, the postulate of friendship or love for all humanity has been evaluated very differently. Often it has been rejected as utopian and contrary to nature.

In common parlance today, philanthropy is often limited to its material aspect and equated with the provision of private financial resources for charitable purposes. In this context, one thinks primarily of large donations and the establishment of foundations. The funds are primarily used for education, research, health care, cultural causes, and combating social ills. Critics dislike the strong political and social influence of large foundations, which are only committed to the goals of their founders and are not democratically legitimised. They also accuse philanthropists of having questionable, self-serving motives.

Judaism

The idea of universal love for human beings beyond ethnic barriers was present in Judaism from the era of the Babylonian exile onwards. In the Torah, the requirement to treat strangers well is linked to a commandment of love in two places: In the third book of Moses (Leviticus) it is enjoined, "The stranger who sojourns with you shall be to you as a native, and you shall love him as yourself; for you yourselves were strangers in Egypt." In the fifth book of Moses (Deuteronomy), the statement "He (God) loves the stranger and gives them food and clothing" is followed by the instruction, "You also shall love the stranger, for you were strangers in Egypt." The command refers to settled strangers (gērîm) of non-Israelite origin. The passage in Deuteronomy is an addition inserted into an older version of the text around the middle of the 6th century BCE at the earliest. The provision in the Book of Leviticus is derived from that in Deuteronomy. The "strangers" are understood to be persons living on the verge of subsistence; it is a matter of clothing and food, the elementary requirements of their survival. The passages thus attest to the existence of an underclass of strangers, dependent on charity, in the territory of the former kingdom of Judah in the 6th century BCE after the fall of the royal house. The community of God's elect addressed in the Tanakh is obligated to care for these individuals. The Deuteronomy passage is the oldest evidence of a love commandment in Judaism that is not limited to the native "neighbor" but includes extra-Israelite humanity.

The unknown author of the letter of Aristeas, written in Hellenistic times and an Egyptian Jew, wrote that it is human nature to be kind to one's subordinates. Philanthropy is the act of one who considers the suffering always associated with human life and therefore does not inflict pain lightly. Philanthropy creates an indissoluble bond of mutual goodwill between the king and his subjects.

Philon of Alexandria, a Jewish philosopher active in the early 1st century AD, understood philanthropy as caring for all people and for each individual, but also for all other living beings. He emphasized the aspect of benevolence of the powerful towards the weak. While he believed that philanthropy should in principle extend to all humanity, he excluded unworthy people from it; they should not be able to invoke the principle of philanthropic generosity. In his treatise On the Virtues, Philon devoted one of four chapters to philanthropy. There he wrote that philanthropy is closely related to piety, that it is the way to holiness. He held up Moses as the best model in this field. He found it particularly praiseworthy that Moses had refrained from appointing one of his family members or his best friend as his successor in the leadership of the people, lest he fall prey to bias. A central concern of Philon was to counter the accusation that the Jews and their religious laws were anti-human, that they generally regarded non-Jews as enemies.

The philanthropic concept gemilut chassadim (literally "giving of loving kindness") plays an important role in Jewish tradition up to the present. This Hebrew term denotes a philanthropy and unselfish willingness to help that is considered a comprehensive, fundamental social virtue in Judaism. According to a saying attributed in the tractate Proverbs to Simeon the Righteous, a high priest of the Hellenistic era, the continuity of the world rests on three pillars: the Torah, worship, and gemilut chassadim. The philanthropy meant here includes charity, but extends beyond it: it includes not only material gifts, but also gratuitous personal commitment to any person in need of any assistance. Examples of gemilut chassadim include clothing the naked, feeding the hungry, burying the dead, visiting the sick, and making interest-free loans to the needy.

Islamic World

In Islam, a distinction is made between the zakāt, which is obligatory for all Muslims and intended for charitable purposes, and voluntary religiously motivated donations (ṣadaqa). The terminology is not always consistent, however; ṣadaqa may also include tax zakāt. Voluntary donations can be mere alms or serve a sustainable improvement of living conditions in the sense of philanthropic activity. Non-Muslims may also be considered as recipients. In numerous hadiths (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad), the extraordinary importance of ṣadaqa is emphasized. The donor is given the prospect that his charity will save him from hell. He should not expect any reciprocation or recognition from the recipient, but trust that God will reward him.

Even in the early days of Islam, a religious endowment system developed within the framework of ṣadaqa. Although the Qur'an contains nothing on this subject, hadiths have been handed down that are traditionally cited to justify the endowment system. According to one hadith, the Prophet advised one of his companions, the later caliph ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb, to make the most valuable piece of land that ʿUmar owned inalienable and to donate the proceeds to charity. Thereupon ʿUmar had stipulated that this landed property was not to be sold, inherited, or given away, but was to be given to a trustee who was to use the proceeds for the poor, slaves, travelers, and guests, among others. In the early days the term ḥabs was used for endowments of this kind, later the term waqf became established.

Under Islamic law, the founder may determine the purpose of the foundation and the group of beneficiaries at his discretion, within the limits permitted by law. The foundation's assets may consist of real estate or movable property. The beneficiaries may be a group of persons determined by the founder or an institution, for example a mosque or school. Non-Muslims may also set up foundations. Only a part of the foundations serves charitable purposes, whereby traditionally - according to the recommendation of the Prophet - the welfare of the poor plays an important role.