Philanthropy: Purpose, Forms, History and Modern Practices

The idea of universal love for human beings beyond ethnic barriers was present in Judaism from the era of the Babylonian exile onwards. In the Torah, the requirement to treat strangers well is linked to a commandment of love in two places: In the third book of Moses (Leviticus) it is enjoined, "The stranger who sojourns with you shall be to you as a native, and you shall love him as yourself; for you yourselves were strangers in Egypt." In the fifth book of Moses (Deuteronomy), the statement "He (God) loves the stranger and gives them food and clothing" is followed by the instruction, "You also shall love the stranger, for you were strangers in Egypt." The command refers to settled strangers (gērîm) of non-Israelite origin. The passage in Deuteronomy is an addition inserted into an older version of the text around the middle of the 6th century BCE at the earliest. The provision in the Book of Leviticus is derived from that in Deuteronomy. The "strangers" are understood to be persons living on the verge of subsistence; it is a matter of clothing and food, the elementary requirements of their survival. The passages thus attest to the existence of an underclass of strangers, dependent on charity, in the territory of the former kingdom of Judah in the 6th century BCE after the fall of the royal house. The community of God's elect addressed in the Tanakh is obligated to care for these individuals. The Deuteronomy passage is the oldest evidence of a love commandment in Judaism that is not limited to the native "neighbor" but includes extra-Israelite humanity.

The unknown author of the letter of Aristeas, written in Hellenistic times and an Egyptian Jew, wrote that it is human nature to be kind to one's subordinates. Philanthropy is the act of one who considers the suffering always associated with human life and therefore does not inflict pain lightly. Philanthropy creates an indissoluble bond of mutual goodwill between the king and his subjects.

Philon of Alexandria, a Jewish philosopher active in the early 1st century AD, understood philanthropy as caring for all people and for each individual, but also for all other living beings. He emphasized the aspect of benevolence of the powerful towards the weak. While he believed that philanthropy should in principle extend to all humanity, he excluded unworthy people from it; they should not be able to invoke the principle of philanthropic generosity. In his treatise On the Virtues, Philon devoted one of four chapters to philanthropy. There he wrote that philanthropy is closely related to piety, that it is the way to holiness. He held up Moses as the best model in this field. He found it particularly praiseworthy that Moses had refrained from appointing one of his family members or his best friend as his successor in the leadership of the people, lest he fall prey to bias. A central concern of Philon was to counter the accusation that the Jews and their religious laws were anti-human, that they generally regarded non-Jews as enemies.

The philanthropic concept gemilut chassadim (literally "giving of loving kindness") plays an important role in Jewish tradition up to the present. This Hebrew term denotes a philanthropy and unselfish willingness to help that is considered a comprehensive, fundamental social virtue in Judaism. According to a saying attributed in the tractate Proverbs to Simeon the Righteous, a high priest of the Hellenistic era, the continuity of the world rests on three pillars: the Torah, worship, and gemilut chassadim. The philanthropy meant here includes charity, but extends beyond it: it includes not only material gifts, but also gratuitous personal commitment to any person in need of any assistance. Examples of gemilut chassadim include clothing the naked, feeding the hungry, burying the dead, visiting the sick, and making interest-free loans to the needy.

In Islam, a distinction is made between the zakāt, which is obligatory for all Muslims and intended for charitable purposes, and voluntary religiously motivated donations (ṣadaqa). The terminology is not always consistent, however; ṣadaqa may also include tax zakāt. Voluntary donations can be mere alms or serve a sustainable improvement of living conditions in the sense of philanthropic activity. Non-Muslims may also be considered as recipients. In numerous hadiths (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad), the extraordinary importance of ṣadaqa is emphasized. The donor is given the prospect that his charity will save him from hell. He should not expect any reciprocation or recognition from the recipient, but trust that God will reward him.

Even in the early days of Islam, a religious endowment system developed within the framework of ṣadaqa. Although the Qur'an contains nothing on this subject, hadiths have been handed down that are traditionally cited to justify the endowment system. According to one hadith, the Prophet advised one of his companions, the later caliph ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb, to make the most valuable piece of land that ʿUmar owned inalienable and to donate the proceeds to charity. Thereupon ʿUmar had stipulated that this landed property was not to be sold, inherited, or given away, but was to be given to a trustee who was to use the proceeds for the poor, slaves, travelers, and guests, among others. In the early days the term ḥabs was used for endowments of this kind, later the term waqf became established.

Under Islamic law, the founder may determine the purpose of the foundation and the group of beneficiaries at his discretion, within the limits permitted by law. The foundation's assets may consist of real estate or movable property. The beneficiaries may be a group of persons determined by the founder or an institution, for example a mosque or school. Non-Muslims may also set up foundations. Only a part of the foundations serves charitable purposes, whereby traditionally - according to the recommendation of the Prophet - the welfare of the poor plays an important role.