Law

Civil rights: definition, scope, history and legal protections Civil rights Civil rights are legal protections and freedoms that secure equal treatment and basic liberties for people within a state; they cover speech, religion, property, anti‑discriminatio…

Civil Rights Act of 1875 — Reconstruction-era federal statute Civil Rights Act of 1875 An overview of the Civil Rights Act of 1875: its provisions guaranteeing access to public accommodations and jury service, legislative history, the Supreme Court's 1883 decision, a…

Civil Rights Act of 1957 — United States voting rights legislation Civil Rights Act of 1957 A summary of the Civil Rights Act of 1957: its purpose as the first post‑Reconstruction civil rights law, main provisions on voting enforcement, legislative context, effects and le…

Civil Rights Act of 1964 A landmark U.S. federal law that outlawed discrimination in public life and employment, ended legal segregation in many public places, and established new enforcement tools to adva…

Civil Rights Cases (1883) - U.S. Supreme Court decision on private discrimination Civil Rights Cases Summary of the Civil Rights Cases (109 U.S. 3, 1883), the Supreme Court decision that held the Fourteenth Amendment did not authorize Congress to prohibit private racial discrimina…

Civil union: legal partnerships as an alternative to marriage Civil union A civil union is a legally recognized partnership that grants many marriage-like rights. It often arose as an alternative where marriage was restricted, particularly for same-sex c…

Class action (representative litigation) Class action A class action is a lawsuit brought by or against a group of people with shared claims. It consolidates many similar individual claims into one representative proceeding for effici…

Classified information: definition, levels, handling, and significance Classified information An overview of classified information: what it is, why it exists, common levels and controls, how it is handled and declassified, and how it differs from corporate secrets.

Clerk: definition, history, duties, and modern types Clerk An overview of the clerk as an occupational title: its origins in religious literacy, historical development, typical duties, and the variety of modern clerical roles in courts, of…

Code of Hammurabi Ancient Babylonian collection of laws issued by King Hammurabi. Carved on a public stele, it contains 282 laws in Akkadian and influenced later legal traditions and ideas of justic…

Codification (law): process, goals, and differences between legal systems Codification (law) Codification in law is the organized compilation of statutes and principles into a systematic code. This article explains what codification is, how it developed, its features, and…

Coercion: definition, legal meaning, types and distinctions Coercion Coercion is using force or threats to make someone act against their will. This entry summarizes definitions, common forms, legal distinctions (duress, undue influence), evidence,…

Command responsibility in international law Command responsibility Doctrine holding commanders or superiors accountable for crimes committed by subordinates when they knew or should have known and failed to prevent or punish.

Commercial Pilot Licence A Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL) authorizes a pilot to act as pilot-in-command for certain paid operations or as a paid co‑pilot; it requires regulated flight experience, exams, an…

Common land Common land: areas where local people hold traditional rights (grazing, fuel, turf-cutting) over land owned by another; its history, typical rights, legal status, decline and moder…

Competition law (antitrust): principles, enforcement and global approaches Competition law Competition law (also called antitrust or anti‑monopoly law) regulates business conduct to preserve market rivalry, prevent abuse, and protect consumers across jurisdictions.

Complaint (law): purpose, structure, civil and criminal uses Complaint A complaint is a formal legal pleading that begins many civil lawsuits and, in some jurisdictions, criminal charges. This article explains its parts, filing process, remedies and k…

Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act (1986) Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act U.S. law enacted in 1986 imposing economic and diplomatic sanctions on apartheid South Africa; passed by Congress over President Reagan's veto and largely repealed after South Afri…

Compromise of 1850: settlement of slavery and territorial issues in the United States Compromise of 1850 A package of five laws enacted in 1850 that addressed slavery in new territories, admitted California, reorganized other lands, ended the DC slave trade, and strengthened fugitive…

Compulsory sterilization: history, law, and human-rights issues Compulsory sterilization Compulsory sterilization is the state-ordered prevention of reproduction. This article summarizes its methods, historical eugenic roots, contemporary occurrences, legal status, and…

Compurgation (wager of law): an oath-based defence in historical law Compurgation Compurgation, or wager of law, was a medieval practice allowing an accused to clear themselves by oath-supported testimony from oath-helpers; it declined as evidence-based procedur…

Computer Misuse Act 1990 (United Kingdom) Computer Misuse Act 1990 UK statute passed in 1990 to criminalise unauthorised access to computer systems, define related offences, and provide a legal framework for prosecution, interpretation, enforcemen…

Concealed weapon: definition, laws, history, uses, and safety Concealed weapon An overview of concealed weapons: what they are, how they differ from open carry, legal approaches to permitting, historical development, typical uses and controversies, and best s…

Concurring Opinion (Judicial Opinion That Agrees With the Result but Adds Reasons) Concurring opinion A concurring opinion is a judge's written statement that agrees with a court's outcome but offers different or additional reasoning; it can influence law as persuasive authority.

Condominium (international law) A condominium is a territory over which two or more sovereign states exercise joint authority. This article explains the concept, arrangements, examples, legal issues, and historic…

Congressional Apportionment Amendment An originally proposed 1789 constitutional amendment that set a formula for House size by population; still technically pending because it was never ratified by enough states.

Consent Consent is voluntary agreement to an action or proposal. Central in law, medicine, research, sexual relations, and privacy, it requires capacity, adequate information, and absence…

Constable: role, history, and variations in law enforcement and public office Constable An overview of the constable: origin of the term, historical development, contemporary roles across jurisdictions, and how the office differs from related positions such as sheriff…

Constitution: purpose, structure, types, history, and key features Constitution An overview of constitutions: what they are, typical parts, written and unwritten forms, major historical examples, how they limit power, protect rights, and how they can be change…

Constitution of Albania The fundamental law of the Republic of Albania, adopted on 28 November 1998, establishing a parliamentary republic and defining government institutions, rights, and the framework f…

Constitution of Argentina The foundational law of Argentina, adopted in 1853 and amended several times (notably 1994). Establishes the federal republic, separation of powers, provincial autonomy and guarant…

Constitution of Australia: origin, structure, amendment and judicial role Constitution of Australia The Constitution of Australia is the written charter that established the Commonwealth, defines federal institutions and procedures, and sets the process for amendment and judicial…

Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan Constitution of Azerbaijan The fundamental law of Azerbaijan, adopted by national referendum in 1995 and amended since; defines state structure, human rights, institutions, and the amendment process.

Constitution of Chile (1980): origins, structure, and reform history Constitution of Chile Overview of Chile's 1980 Political Constitution: origins under military government, main institutions and rights, amendments, and the processes to replace or reform it in recent de…

Indian Constitution: Origins, Structure, Fundamental Rights, and Amendment Principles Constitution of India Overview of the Indian Constitution: its drafting, federal-parliamentary structure, enforceable fundamental rights, directive principles, independent judiciary, amendment process a…

Constitution of Japan The postwar fundamental law of Japan, enacted in 1947, establishing parliamentary democracy, broad human rights, the emperor's symbolic status and a pacifist commitment; subject of…

Constitution of Missouri The Constitution of Missouri is the state's fundamental law. Adopted in 1945 (the fourth constitution), it establishes government structure, rights, courts, local government, and a…

Constitution of North Korea Overview of the Socialist Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea: purpose, structure, history of amendments, main institutions, and its role in law and governanc…

Constitution of Pakistan (1973): Origins, Structure, and Significance Constitution of Pakistan The 1973 Constitution established Pakistan's parliamentary federal system, set out fundamental rights, integrated Islamic principles, and has been amended over time to reshape cent…

Constitution of Romania The Constitution of Romania is the country's supreme law. It establishes the political system, defines fundamental rights and duties, and sets the organization and powers of public…

Constitution of the United Kingdom: structure, sources, and key features Constitution of the United Kingdom An overview of the United Kingdom's uncodified constitution: its sources, characteristics, historical development, legal status, and contemporary significance.

Constitution of the United States Founding document establishing the federal government, core principles, structure, amendment process, and historical context of the U.S. Constitution.

Constitutional Act of 1791 Constitutional Act 1791 British statute that divided the Province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada and created separate representative institutions, shaping the political and legal foundations of mod…

Constitutional Court of Romania Independent court that reviews laws for constitutionality, resolves institutional disputes, and protects fundamental rights; composed of judges appointed under constitutional rules…

Constitutional law: principles, sources, and institutional roles Constitutional law Study of the legal rules that organize government powers, protect fundamental rights, and set the procedures for changing those rules; covers written constitutions and unwritten sy…

Constitutional right A constitutional right is a freedom or entitlement that a nation's constitution recognizes and protects; its meaning, scope, and enforceability vary by legal tradition and history.

Constitutionality: definition, principles, and how courts decide Constitutionality Constitutionality examines whether laws or government actions comply with a nation's constitution, how courts review them, common tests and doctrines, and examples such as limits o…

Consumer protection: rights, laws, enforcement, and common issues Consumer protection Overview of consumer protection: core rights, common unfair practices, legal frameworks, enforcement mechanisms, and why safeguards matter in modern markets.