Law

Abduction (criminal law): definition, elements, and distinctions Abduction Overview of abduction as a criminal offense: definition, legal elements, differences from kidnapping, historical development, common uses and penalties, and prevention measures.

Aboriginal title: indigenous land rights under common law Aboriginal title Aboriginal title is a legal doctrine recognizing that indigenous peoples retain rights to their traditional land after state sovereignty; recognition, scope and proof vary by juris…

Act of Congress A statute enacted by a legislature called a Congress; in the U.S. it is a bill approved by both houses and made law by the President or by constitutional operation.

Act of Parliament An Act of Parliament is primary legislation enacted by a parliamentary assembly. This article explains what an Act is, its structure, how it becomes law, types, history and its rol…

Acts of Supremacy: Royal Authority over the Church of England Acts of Supremacy Two English statutes (1534 and 1559) asserting the monarch's authority over the Church of England, ending papal jurisdiction in England, imposing an oath of loyalty, and shaping Tu…

Acts of Union 1707 Two Parliamentary Acts passed in 1706–07 that united the kingdoms of England and Scotland into the Kingdom of Great Britain, effective 1 May 1707, while preserving distinct legal a…

Admission to the Union (U.S. Constitution) Admission to the Union The constitutional provision empowering Congress to admit new states into the United States, its limits, procedures, historical practice, and legal significance including the equal…

Adult: legal, biological, and cultural meanings Adult Overview of what 'adult' means in law, biology and society: age of majority, maturity, rights and restrictions, cultural rites, and practical distinctions between legal adulthood a…

Adversarial system (legal adversary model) Adversarial system A trial method used in common-law jurisdictions where opposing advocates present competing cases before an impartial judge or jury; contrasts with inquisitorial systems and shapes…

Affinity (kinship by marriage) Affinity Affinity is a kinship connection created by marriage that links one spouse to the relatives of the other; it differs from blood kinship and has legal and social consequences varyin…

Affirmative action (positive discrimination) Affirmative action Policies that give preferential treatment to underrepresented groups in education, employment, or public benefits to promote equality and remedy past disadvantage.

Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) Affordable Care Act U.S. federal law enacted in 2010 that reshaped health insurance coverage, established marketplaces and subsidies, expanded preventive care, and provoked widespread legal and politi…

African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (Banjul Charter) African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights Regional human-rights treaty adopted in 1981 that affirms civil, political, economic, social and collective rights for individuals and peoples across Africa.

Age of Consent: Legal Thresholds for Sexual Consent Age of consent Age of consent is the legally defined minimum age at which a person can consent to sexual activity. Laws vary by jurisdiction and include exceptions, penalties, and age-difference…

Age of Majority The legally defined age at which a person is recognized as an adult and gains full civil rights and responsibilities, varying by jurisdiction and distinct from biological maturity.

Agricultural Adjustment Act (1933) — New Deal farm policy Agricultural Adjustment Act 1933 U.S. law that sought to raise farm prices by reducing production through subsidies, acreage controls, and purchases; created the Agricultural Adjustment Administration and pro…

Alan Watson (legal scholar) Scottish legal historian and comparative law scholar known for Roman law research and for introducing the influential concept of legal transplants in the study of how laws move bet…

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798): provisions, context and legacy Alien and Sedition Acts A clear overview of the four 1798 Alien and Sedition Acts: their provisions, political context during the quasi-war with France, controversies over free speech and immigration, and…

Amendment (legal change to documents and laws) Amendment An amendment is a formal change to a law, contract, constitution, or other legal document. This article explains what amendments are, how they work, their history, typical procedur…

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 A summary of the 2009 U.S. economic stimulus law: aims, main components, legislative history, implementation and its legacy in addressing the Great Recession.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 Federal civil-rights law passed in 1990 that prohibits disability discrimination in employment, public services, public accommodations, telecommunications, and related areas.

Animal rights: principles, history, and contemporary debates Animal rights Overview of animal rights: core ideas, historical development, practical implications, and distinctions from animal welfare, with examples of common issues and debates in ethics an…

Annual leave (paid time off) Annual leave Annual leave is paid time off granted by employers for vacation, rest, or personal reasons. Entitlement, accrual, scheduling and pay rules vary by country and employer policy.

Antarctic Treaty System International framework of agreements that preserves Antarctica for peaceful uses, scientific research, and environmental protection while setting aside territorial disputes.

Anti-bullying legislation: purpose, components, and impact Anti-bullying legislation Laws and policies intended to prevent and respond to bullying in schools, workplaces, and online. Explains common elements, historical development, implementation, and controversie…

Anti-social behaviour order (ASBO) — UK measure to restrict disruptive conduct Anti-social behaviour order ASBOs were civil orders used in the UK to prohibit conduct that caused alarm or distress. Introduced in 1998, breach carried criminal penalties. They were replaced by new injunctio…

Appeal (law): purpose, procedure, and outcomes Appeal An appeal is the legal process by which a higher court reviews a lower court's decision. This entry explains participants, typical procedure, grounds, standards of review, outcomes…

Appellate Court: Role, Structure, Procedure, and Variations Appellate court An appellate court reviews decisions of lower tribunals, applies standards of review, issues written opinions and can affirm, reverse, remand or modify judgments; systems and power…

Apportionment in the United States Apportionment The constitutional and statistical process by which seats in the U.S. House of Representatives and, historically, direct taxes are allocated among states based on population counts…

Arbitration (Alternative Dispute Resolution) Arbitration Arbitration is a private process in which parties submit a dispute to one or more neutral adjudicators whose decision is typically final and enforceable, used in commercial, labor,…

Arrest: legal detention and deprivation of liberty Arrest An arrest is the legal taking into custody of a person, removing their liberty while authorities investigate or prevent crime. Procedures, rights, and remedies vary by jurisdiction…

Article Five of the United States Constitution Article Five establishes the formal procedures for proposing and ratifying amendments to the U.S. Constitution, and notes limited protections on altering certain constitutional pro…

Article Four of the United States Constitution: States, Territories, and Federal Guarantees Article Four of the United States Constitution Overview and analysis of Article IV, which governs state-to-state relations, recognition of laws and judgments, admission of new states, territorial powers, and federal guarantees.

Article Seven of the United States Constitution Explains the Constitution's ratification requirement: approval by conventions in nine states to bring the new Constitution into effect and the historical consequences of that rule.

Article Six of the United States Constitution Overview of Article Six (VI): the Supremacy Clause, public debts, oath requirements for officials, and the prohibition of religious tests, with historical context and legal signifi…

Article Three of the United States Constitution Summary of Article III, which establishes the federal judiciary, defines judicial power and jurisdiction, sets tenure and salary protections, and addresses treason and related proc…

Asbestosis: chronic lung scarring from asbestos inhalation Asbestosis Asbestosis is a chronic, progressive lung disease caused by inhaling asbestos fibers. This article covers causes, symptoms, diagnosis, history, prevention, distinctions from relate…

Assault (law): definitions, elements, types and defenses Assault Summary of assault as a legal concept in criminal and civil law, its typical elements, distinctions from battery, common types including aggravated assault, defenses, and jurisdict…

Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Role, selection, duties, history, and distinctions of the Associate Justices — the eight members of the U.S. Supreme Court who serve alongside the Chief Justice.

Audit: Purpose, Types, Process, and Role in Business and Public Trust Audit An audit is an independent examination of records, systems, or performance. This article describes audit types, typical procedures, history, uses, and limitations in business and p…

Australia Act 1986: final legal severance from the United Kingdom Australia Act 1986 Two mirror Acts passed in 1986 that completed Australia's legal independence by ending UK legislative authority and appeals to British courts, and clarifying the Crown's role in Au…

Austrian State Treaty (1955): Restoration of Austria's Independence Austrian State Treaty The 1955 Austrian State Treaty ended Allied occupation, restored Austria's sovereignty, banned Anschluss and Nazi organizations, and preceded Austria’s declaration of permanent neu…

Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) Bachelor of Laws An undergraduate or first professional law degree awarded in many jurisdictions. Covers core legal subjects, practical skills, and often leads to further vocational training for le…

Bail: purpose, forms, procedures and reforms Bail Bail is a court-ordered security—often money—taken to ensure a defendant returns for their trial. This article explains how bail works, common types, historical context, uses, conc…

Balanced budget amendment (United States) Balanced budget amendment A proposed constitutional rule requiring that the federal government not spend more than its revenues in a year; proposals vary on exceptions, enforcement, and effects on fiscal po…

Bali Nine: 2005 Australian heroin trafficking arrests, trials and aftermath Bali Nine Nine Australians arrested in Bali in 2005 for attempting to smuggle heroin to Australia; prosecutions led to long prison terms, two executions in 2015, diplomatic disputes and deba…

Balochistan High Court The Balochistan High Court is the highest provincial court for Balochistan, Pakistan, seated in Quetta. It decides appeals, constitutional petitions, supervises subordinate courts…

Bankruptcy: legal process, types, and effects Bankruptcy Bankruptcy is a formal legal procedure for individuals or organizations unable to meet their debts. This article explains the process, parties involved, outcomes, historical origin…