Law

Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany (Grundgesetz) Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany An accessible overview of Germany's post‑war constitution: origins, core principles, institutional structure, fundamental rights, amendment rules and the role of the Federal Consti…

Bastard (term for a child born outside marriage) Bastard Historic and pejorative term for a child born to parents who are not married; covers definition, historical legal effects, cultural stigma, modern usage and preferred alternatives.

Battery (criminal law) Battery (crime) Battery is the intentional, unconsented physical contact that causes harm or is offensive. Definitions and penalties vary by jurisdiction; it can be prosecuted criminally and pursu…

Betts v. Brady (316 U.S. 455, 1942) Betts v. Brady A 1942 U.S. Supreme Court decision limiting the obligation to appoint counsel for indigent criminal defendants; its rule was later overruled by Gideon v. Wainwright (1963).

Bill (proposed law): definition, structure, and legislative process Bill (proposed law) A bill is a formal proposal for new law introduced in a legislature. This article explains what bills are, common types and structure, how they move through lawmaking, and how they…

Bill of Rights 1689 (English Act Declaring Rights and Succession) Bill of Rights 1689 The Bill of Rights 1689 is an Act of the Parliament of England that limited the powers of the monarch, set parliamentary rights, and helped shape constitutional monarchy and later…

Birth certificate An official record documenting a birth, its typical contents, how registration works, legal uses and limitations, and variations in form and practice around the world.

Blackmail: definition, forms, legal issues, and how to respond Blackmail Blackmail is using threats to obtain money, property, or actions by exposing information or causing harm. This article explains types, legal elements, examples, distinctions, conse…

Blank cheque A signed cheque with the payable amount left blank. Discusses its legal nature, risks, historical background, metaphorical use, and practical safeguards.

Boot camp (training programs and correctional models) Boot camp Intensive, short-term programs modeled on military basic training; used in armed forces, correctional 'shock' incarceration, fitness, and vocational training such as coding bootcam…

Bounty hunter A bounty hunter is a private agent paid to locate and return fugitives or recover property. The role, methods, legal status and cultural portrayals vary by country and are often co…

Boynton v. Virginia (1960): Desegregation of Interstate Travel Boynton v. Virginia Landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision that overturned a trespass conviction and held segregation in facilities serving interstate travelers violated federal law, influencing the Fre…

Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act U.S. federal law enacted in 1993 that required background checks for firearm purchases from licensed dealers and established an interim waiting period; named for White House press…

Bribery: definition, forms, consequences and prevention Bribery Bribery is offering or receiving something of value to improperly influence actions. This article explains types, examples, legal and ethical issues, and common anti‑corruption res…

Brief (law) A brief is a formal written argument submitted to a court explaining legal reasons, authorities, and facts that support a party's position; common in civil and criminal proceedings…

Brown v. Board of Education II (1955): implementing school desegregation Brown v. Board of Education II Supreme Court decision in 1955 that directed how public schools must dismantle racial segregation, ordering implementation "with all deliberate speed" and delegating oversight to l…

BSD licence: history, characteristics, variants and usage BSD licence A concise guide to the BSD licence family: its permissive nature, origins at UC Berkeley, main variants (4-, 3-, 2-clause), common uses and how it differs from copyleft licences.

Buenos Aires Convention (Convention on Literary and Artistic Copyright) Buenos Aires Convention A 1910 regional treaty among American states establishing reciprocal copyright protection and formal notice requirements; historically significant though later superseded by broade…

Bundesfinanzhof — Federal Finance Court of Germany Bundesfinanzhof The Bundesfinanzhof (BFH) is Germany's highest court for tax and customs law, hearing legal appeals from regional finance courts and shaping fiscal jurisprudence from its seat in M…

Bundessozialgericht — Germany’s Federal Social Court Bundessozialgericht The Bundessozialgericht is Germany’s highest court for social security law, hearing final appeals in matters like public health, long-term care, pensions and workplace accident ins…

Burglary (breaking and entering): definition, history, law, and prevention Burglary Burglary is the unlawful entry of a structure with intent to commit a crime inside. This article explains its definition, elements, history, legal variations, distinctions, and pra…

By-law (bylaw, bye-law): definition, types, creation and enforcement By-law A by-law is a rule made by an organization or local authority to govern itself or a territory. This article explains meanings, kinds, how they are made and enforced, and how they d…

California Highway Patrol State law enforcement agency responsible for traffic safety, commercial vehicle enforcement, vehicle inspections, and emergency response on California highways and unincorporated a…

California Proposition 8 (2008) — ban on same-sex marriage and legal aftermath California Proposition 8 California Proposition 8 (2008) amended the state constitution to define marriage as between a man and a woman; it provoked major campaigns and multi-year federal litigation, with…

Canada Elections Act Primary federal statute that governs the conduct, financing and administration of elections to Canada’s House of Commons, including rules on voting, advertising, nominations and en…

Caning: definition, methods, history, and contemporary practice Caning Caning is corporal punishment involving strikes with a cane (often rattan). This article explains methods, historical use, legal status, effects, and where caning remains in use to…

Canon law (ecclesiastical law) Canon law Body of rules, principles, and procedures governing the organization, ministry, sacraments, and discipline of Christian churches, especially Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and A…

Capital punishment in the United States An overview of the history, legal framework, methods, and contemporary debates surrounding the death penalty in the United States, including state, federal, and military practices.

Case citation: how judicial decisions are identified and referenced Case citation An explanation of case citation: its components, history, the shift to medium-neutral formats, and practical differences across jurisdictions for locating and citing court decision…

Case law: judicial decisions and legal precedent Case law Case law is the body of law formed by judicial decisions and precedent, shaping legal interpretation, filling gaps in statutes, and differing in role between common-law and civil-l…

Cause of Action: Definition, Elements, History and Legal Uses Cause of action Legal concept describing the facts and legal theory that give a plaintiff the right to sue; explains elements, procedure, examples, and key distinctions in civil law.

Cease and desist: purpose, structure, legal effects and responses Cease and desist An introduction to cease and desist letters and orders: what they are, typical contents, legal significance, common uses (including intellectual property), and practical steps for…

Cession: transfer of rights, territory, and sovereignty Cession Cession is the transfer of property, rights, or territory from one party to another, often by treaty or agreement. It contrasts with annexation and has distinct legal effects in do…

Cheating: definitions, common forms, causes, consequences and prevention Cheating Overview of cheating: what it is, typical forms (academic, sporting, relational, commercial, digital), causes, detection, consequences, and strategies to prevent and respond to dis…

Chief Justice of India The Chief Justice of India is the highest judicial officer and head of the Supreme Court, responsible for leading the federal judiciary, assigning cases, and overseeing administrat…

Child abandonment: causes, legal responses, and long-term outcomes Child abandonment Overview of child abandonment, common causes and risk factors, how societies respond (orphanages, foster care, Safe Haven laws), consequences for children, and prevention or suppor…

Child custody: principles, types, decision-making, and practical issues Child custody Overview of child custody and guardianship: meanings, physical and legal custody, standards courts use, common arrangements, enforcement, and special situations such as foster care…

Child Labor Amendment (United States Constitution) Child Labor Amendment A proposed amendment first introduced in 1924 to give Congress explicit power to regulate labor by persons under 18; it remains technically pending because it was never ratified by…

Child pornography Child pornography denotes sexual content that depicts or exploits minors. It is illegal in most jurisdictions, treated as child sexual abuse, and addressed through criminal law, pr…

Child support: purpose, mechanics, enforcement, and key distinctions Child support Child support is periodic financial assistance paid by one parent to benefit a child after separation. This article explains who pays, how amounts are set, enforcement, modificatio…

Citizenship in the United States Overview of how U.S. citizenship is defined, acquired, and lost; rights and duties of citizens; historical background and key distinctions from other immigration statuses.

Citizenship of the European Union EU citizenship, created by the 1992 Maastricht Treaty, supplements national citizenship and grants rights such as free movement, voting in EU and local elections, consular protecti…

Individual Liberties and Political Participation under International Human Rights Law Civil and political rights Overview of individual civil and political liberties under international human rights law, including rights to life, free expression, assembly and political participation, and how…

Civil disobedience: nonviolent refusal to obey laws deemed unjust Civil disobedience Civil disobedience is the deliberate, public, nonviolent refusal to follow laws or commands viewed as unjust, used historically to press moral and political change and to draw publ…

Civil law (legal system): origins, features, and global distribution Civil law Overview of the civil law tradition: its Roman roots and codification, principal features, main areas of application, historical spread, and differences from common law systems.

Civil law (in common-law jurisdictions) Civil law (common law) Body of law governing private rights and duties in common-law countries — covers contracts, torts, property, family and remedies such as damages and injunctions.

Civil liberties: fundamental personal freedoms limiting state power Civil liberties Civil liberties are basic personal freedoms protected against government intrusion, including speech, religion, privacy, fair process and protection from torture; they evolve throu…

Civil Liberties Act of 1988 U.S. federal law that apologized for and provided monetary redress to Japanese Americans interned during World War II and established a program to administer payments and records.