Sociology

Patrician (ancient Roman aristocracy) Patrician Patricians were the hereditary aristocratic families of early Rome. They held early political, religious, and social privileges, later contested and partly opened to plebeians duri…

Peer “Peer” denotes an equal, a member of a nobility, a participant in peer-to-peer systems, a member of a social cohort, or the action “to peer” (look). Overview, origins, uses, and di…

Peer group A peer group is a set of people who share similar social status, age, interests or roles. Peer groups influence identity, norms, behavior and skills across childhood, education, wo…

Peer pressure: social influence, types, effects and responses Peer pressure Peer pressure is social influence exerted by peers; it can encourage risky or positive behavior. This article explains forms, mechanisms, history, examples, impacts on youth, and p…

Peer support: principles, roles, and applications Peer support Peer support is mutual assistance based on shared lived experience. This article explains its principles, common roles, settings, history, benefits, and practical considerations.

Pension: Retirement Income, Plan Types, Funding and Policy Pension An overview of pensions as systems of retirement income—types (defined benefit, defined contribution, social), funding methods, history, eligibility, common features and policy iss…

People-watching People-watching is the informal observation of others' behavior and interactions in public settings, practiced as casual curiosity, a hobby, or a skill with social, artistic, and e…

Persecution: causes, forms, history and legal responses Persecution Persecution is sustained mistreatment of people or groups for attributes such as religion, ethnicity, politics, sex or identity. This article explains its types, history, consequen…

Plural ignorance (pluralistic ignorance) Plural ignorance Plural ignorance occurs when most people privately reject a norm but wrongly believe others accept it, producing silence and the continued existence of that norm.

Pogrom — targeted ethnic and religious riots Pogrom A pogrom is a violent, often organized attack on a minority group and their property, historically associated with anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe and used more broadly for…

Population growth: definition, measurement, causes and consequences Population growth Overview of population growth: how it is measured, main causes and dynamics, historical patterns, policy responses, and distinctions such as natural increase versus migration.

Population pyramid A population pyramid is a two-sided bar chart that displays the age and sex structure of a population, used in demography to analyze growth, aging, and social needs.

Population without double counting Explanation of the concept "population without double counting", its use in census statistics (notably France), measurement issues, examples and practical implications for planning…

Profanity: definitions, categories, cultural history, and social effects Profanity An overview of profanity: meanings, common categories (religious, sexual, scatological), cultural variation, social functions, legal and moral responses, and modern media issues.

Proletariat The proletariat is the social class of wage-earners who sell their labor, historically central to Marxist theory and modern discussions of labor, class, and industrial society.

Promiscuity: social meanings, sexual behavior, and biological perspectives Promiscuity An overview of promiscuity as a term and behavior: definitions, cultural variation, research on stigma and gender, health and consent issues, and promiscuous mating in animals.

Prostitution: definition, forms, history, legal approaches and social issues Prostitution Prostitution (sex work) is the exchange of sexual services for money or goods. This article outlines definitions, common forms, historical presence, legal models, public-health con…

Protégé: meaning, roles, history and distinctions Protégé A protégé is a less-experienced person who receives guidance, protection or sponsorship from a more experienced person—often called a mentor—shaping skills, opportunities and caree…

Queer: meaning, history, usage, and distinctions Queer Queer is an umbrella term for non-normative sexual orientations and gender identities; reclaimed from a slur, it is used in activism, academia, and personal identification with var…

Race (sociology) Sociological concept of race: a social classification based on perceived physical differences, its historical origins, uses in institutions, and contemporary debates over identity…

Race and Crime in the United States Overview of how race and criminal justice interact in the U.S., covering data sources, historical roots, patterns of disparity, causes, policy responses, and ongoing debates.

Racial profiling: definition, contexts, legal issues, and responses Racial profiling Racial profiling is policing or decision-making that uses race, ethnicity, religion, or nationality as a primary factor; it raises legal and civil-rights concerns and has prompted…

Racial segregation: overview, history, forms, and contemporary issues Racial segregation Racial segregation is the enforced or informal separation of people by race. This article explains its forms, historical examples, social effects, legal responses, and how segregat…

Radical feminism: origins, principles, and debates Radical feminism Radical feminism is a branch of feminist thought that seeks to dismantle patriarchy and gendered power structures. This article reviews its ideas, history, practices, debates, and…

Role (social role): definition, components, history, and examples Role A social role is a pattern of expected behaviour, duties and rights associated with a social position. This article explains its components, types, history, common problems and soc…

Sadomasochism: consensual pain, power and erotic practice Sadomasochism Sadomasochism refers to consensual erotic practices that involve pain, dominance, submission, or humiliation; part of the broader BDSM spectrum and governed by negotiation, consent…

Sadri language (Nagpuri) Sadri language Sadri (Nagpuri) is an Eastern Indo‑Aryan language of eastern India and neighbouring Bangladesh, native to the Sadan people and widely used as a lingua franca among several tribal c…

Same-sex relationship: overview, history and social context Same-sex relationship Accessible overview of same-sex relationships covering definitions, history, legal and social contexts, family life, health, terminology and contemporary issues affecting partners…

Sans-culottes: urban popular militants of the French Revolution Sans-culottes The sans-culottes were the urban working poor and small artisans whose radical politics and direct-action tactics shaped much of the French Revolution and its early republican gove…

Sansei — third-generation Japanese descendants in the diaspora Sansei Sansei refers to the third generation of people of Japanese descent born outside Japan. The term describes a distinct generational identity shaped by immigration history, language…

Santali language: overview, script, and cultural role Santali language Santali is a Munda (Austroasiatic) language of the Santal people, spoken across parts of India, Bangladesh and Nepal; it has a distinct script (Ol Chiki) and rich oral and written…

Sarcasm: definition, cues, uses, and distinctions Sarcasm Sarcasm is a form of verbal irony often used for humor, criticism, or social signaling. It relies on tone, context, and cues and poses special challenges in writing, translation, a…

School bullying: causes, forms, impacts and prevention School bullying An overview of school bullying: what it is, common forms, history, effects on children and young people, groups at higher risk, and strategies schools and communities use to preven…

School shooting: definition, patterns, causes, responses and prevention School shooting An objective overview of school shootings: what they are, common patterns, possible causes, typical responses and approaches to prevention and mitigation.

Second-class citizen A second-class citizen is someone who, despite legal status, faces systematic social, political or legal disadvantages. This article explains definitions, characteristics, history,…

Second-wave feminism A mid-20th-century feminist movement that extended the struggle beyond suffrage to reproductive rights, workplace equality, sexuality, and legal reforms across Western societies.

Secrecy: definition, types, protection and social implications Secrecy Secrecy is the deliberate withholding of information from others. This article explains what secrecy is, reasons for it, legal and technical protection, ethical issues, and common…

Sector model (Hoyt's urban land‑use model) Sector model An urban geography model developed by Homer Hoyt (1939) describing city growth in wedge‑shaped sectors radiating from the centre, emphasizing transport corridors and socio‑economic…

Secularization: decline and transformation of religion in modern societies Secularization Secularization describes the diminishing social, cultural and political authority of religion as societies modernize; it covers theories, historical trends, measurements, exception…

Segregation: forms, causes, history, and social effects Segregation Segregation is the systematic separation of people into groups by characteristics such as race, religion, sex, age or income. This article outlines types, causes, consequences, his…

Serbs: South Slavic people of the Balkans and Central Europe Serbs Overview of the Serbs: name, language, religion, history, cultural traits, distribution across the Balkans and Central Europe, and diaspora connections.

Serfdom in Medieval Europe: Bound Peasant Labor, Rights, and Abolition Serfdom Overview of serfdom in medieval Europe: how peasants were tied to land, their duties and limited rights, regional variations, and the gradual decline and abolition over centuries.

Sex segregation: separation of people by sex in institutions and public life Sex segregation Overview of sex segregation: definitions, typical forms and contexts (education, prisons, religion, sports), reasons for practice, legal and ethical debates, and distinctions from…

Sex-positive feminism A feminist perspective that emphasizes sexual autonomy, consent, and pleasure as part of women's liberation, and that debates regulation of pornography, sex work, and sexual expres…

Sexism: Definition, Forms, History, and Responses Sexism Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on a person's sex or gender. This article explains its forms, history, effects, notable distinctions, and legal and social responses.

Sexual orientation: definitions, categories, causes, and social significance Sexual orientation Overview of sexual orientation: common categories and labels, scientific views on origins, distinctions from behavior and identity, and social, legal, and health implications.

Sexual violence: definition, forms, impacts, law, and responses Sexual violence Overview of sexual violence: what it is, common forms, who is affected, consequences, legal recognition, prevention, and survivor support.

Shame: a social emotion — causes, functions, and how it differs from guilt Shame Shame is a self-conscious social emotion experienced when someone perceives they have violated social or personal standards. This article describes causes, cultural roles, effects,…