A second-class citizen is an individual who, although formally a citizen or legal resident of a state, experiences systematic disadvantage compared with other members of that polity. The term is used to describe exclusion that may be enshrined in law or arise from social practice and prejudice. Such treatment is widely regarded as a human rights concern and is addressed by international standards and advocacy groups; see international human rights standards for general context.
Typical characteristics
- Restricted civil or political rights: limitations on voting, holding office, or equal protection under law.
- Economic and social exclusion: barriers to employment, education, housing or public services.
- Legal or administrative discrimination: rules or policies that differentiate by race, religion, caste, gender or other status.
- Everyday marginalization: social stigma, violence, or denial of dignity even where legal equality exists.
Historical and contemporary examples
The phrase has been applied to many societies and periods. For instance, African-Americans in the United States endured systemic legal and social subordination during eras of formal segregation; see discussions of African-American history and segregation. Colonial structures often created second-class statuses as well, such as the arrangements under British colonial rule in India, where indigenous groups had limited participation in governance. In the 20th century, black populations in South Africa were subject to legally enforced separation and inequality under systems targeting black Africans commonly summarized as apartheid. Religious and ethnic minorities — for example, some Arab Christian communities in parts of the Middle East — have also faced conditions described as second-class citizenship.
Not all second-class conditions are codified; many are de facto, produced by discrimination, neglect, or hostile social norms. The distinction between de jure (by law) and de facto (in practice) second-class status is important when evaluating remedies and legal responsibility.
Consequences and responses
Consequences include entrenched poverty, political underrepresentation, poor health outcomes and social fragmentation. Responses have ranged from legal reform and anti-discrimination legislation to public interest litigation, social movements, affirmative action policies, and reconciliation programs. Civil rights campaigns in many countries have sought to convert formal equality into meaningful access.
Understanding the concept requires attention to both legal texts and lived experience: a person may hold citizenship on paper while being denied the full rights and protections that citizenship normally implies. Efforts to identify and remove second-class status typically combine legal change, institutional reform and shifts in public attitudes.