Psychology

Friendship: meaning, qualities, types, and social importance Friendship Overview of friendship: definition, common qualities, history and cultural notes, types (childhood, best friends, workplace, online), benefits, and how expectations and conflict sh…

Frontotemporal dementia (FTD): overview, symptoms, pathology, diagnosis and care Frontotemporal dementia Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a group of disorders caused by progressive loss of neurons in frontal and temporal lobes, producing early changes in behaviour, language and execut…

Frustration: emotional experience and physical concept Frustration Overview of frustration as a human emotion and as a physical phenomenon (geometrical frustration), with causes, effects, examples and practical coping approaches.

Fugue state (dissociative fugue): symptoms, causes, diagnosis, and treatment Fugue state A fugue state is a rare dissociative condition with sudden amnesia and travel or identity change. This article explains features, likely causes, diagnosis, treatment, prognosis, an…

Gag reflex (pharyngeal reflex) Gag reflex The gag reflex is an involuntary contraction of the throat that helps protect the airway. This article explains its mechanism, triggers, clinical importance, ways to suppress it, a…

Gamophobia: Fear of Marriage, Commitment, and Romantic Relationships Gamophobia Gamophobia is an intense fear or avoidance of marriage, long-term commitment, or romantic relationships. Covers symptoms, psychological associations, distinctions, and treatment ap…

Gender dysphoria: overview, diagnosis, treatment, and social context Gender dysphoria Gender dysphoria describes marked incongruence between experienced gender and assigned sex; this article explains signs, diagnosis, treatment options, history, and social risks.

Gender identity: definition, types, development, and social significance Gender identity An encyclopedic overview of gender identity: what it means, common identity terms, how it develops, how it differs from sex and sexual orientation, and its legal, medical, and cult…

General intelligence (g): concept, measurement, history, and debates General intelligence factor The general intelligence factor (g) is a summary measure that emerges from cognitive test correlations. This article explains its origin, models, measurement, applications, and maj…

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) Generalized anxiety disorder Generalized anxiety disorder is a chronic psychiatric condition characterized by persistent, excessive worry about everyday life, accompanied by physical symptoms and functional im…

Gestalt psychology: principles, history, and lasting influence Gestalt psychology Gestalt psychology is a school of perception and cognitive theory emphasizing that organized wholes, not isolated elements, determine how we see and understand sensory information.

Gestalt therapy: principles, history, techniques, and applications Gestalt therapy Gestalt therapy is a humanistic, experiential psychotherapy emphasizing present-moment awareness, personal responsibility, and meaningful contact. This article outlines its origins…

Guilt (emotion): causes, development, effects, and distinctions Guilt (emotion) Guilt is a self-conscious emotion experienced when a person believes they have violated moral or social standards. This article explains its features, development, roles, and links…

Hallucination: causes, types, and clinical distinctions Hallucination Hallucinations are sensory experiences perceived without external stimuli. This article explains types, common causes, how they differ from dreams or illusions, clinical assessment…

Handedness: preference, causes, ambidexterity, and practical effects Handedness Handedness is the habitual preference for using one side of the body—most often the hands—for tasks. This article covers patterns, measurement, origins, ambidexterity, and practica…

Hans Eysenck: German‑born British Psychologist and Personality Theorist Hans Eysenck Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) was a prominent, influential and controversial psychologist known for factor‑analytic personality theory, behaviorist approaches to therapy, the EPQ, and c…

Happiness: emotion, causes, and cultural perspectives Happiness Overview of happiness as an emotion: definitions, characteristics, history, measurements, benefits, types, and notable distinctions across cultures and psychology.

Harassment: definition, forms, effects and responses Harassment Harassment is intentional, repeated behavior that disturbs, threatens or offends a person. This article explains forms, contexts, impacts, legal responses, prevention and related d…

Hawthorne effect The Hawthorne effect describes how people alter their behavior when they know they are being observed; it originated from workplace studies and affects research design across many…

Hebephilia: definition, distinctions, and debates Hebephilia Overview of hebephilia—sexual attraction to early adolescents—covering definitions, age distinctions, etymology, clinical controversy, legal and ethical issues, and research challe…

High-functioning autism: overview, characteristics, and controversies High-functioning autism An informative overview of high-functioning autism: features, diagnostic context, history of the term, controversies over 'functioning' labels, and practical support strategies.

Highly sensitive person (HSP): traits, history, and practical implications Highly sensitive person Overview of the Highly Sensitive Person (HSP) trait: defining features, research history, prevalence, characteristics, practical implications, and distinctions from shyness or intr…

Hikikomori: prolonged social withdrawal and its social context Hikikomori Hikikomori describes prolonged social withdrawal first identified in Japan. This article explains its definitions, characteristics, history, causes, social impact, and typical appr…

Hippocampus: anatomy, function, and clinical importance Hippocampus The hippocampus is a bilateral brain structure essential for memory consolidation and spatial navigation; it has distinctive layered anatomy, is a model for plasticity research, an…

Histrionic Personality Disorder: overview, features, history, and treatment Histrionic personality disorder An accessible encyclopedia entry on histrionic personality disorder: its defining features, history, prevalence, clinical presentation, differential diagnosis, and common approache…

Human sexuality: overview, components, history, and distinctions Human sexuality Encyclopedic overview of human sexuality: its biological, emotional, social and cultural components; orientation and identity; health, rights and terminology; and distinctions betw…

Hypersexuality: causes, symptoms, assessment and management Hypersexuality Hypersexuality is an unusually intense or persistent sexual drive that can cause distress or impairment. This article outlines features, possible causes, assessment approaches, and…

Hypnagogia: the transitional experience between wakefulness and sleep Hypnagogia Hypnagogia is the transient mental state at sleep onset or upon waking, marked by vivid imagery, sounds, sensations and sometimes sleep paralysis; it is common and usually benign.

Hypnosis Hypnosis is a state of focused attention and heightened suggestibility used in clinical hypnotherapy, self-help, research, and entertainment. It involves induction, suggestion, and…

Hypostatic model of personality A conceptual framework that describes personality as a set of coexisting 'hypostases' or roles and states, emphasizing situational expression, integration, and therapeutic or resea…

Hysteria: historical concept, modern equivalents, and clinical context Hysteria Hysteria is an outdated term for intense, often uncontrollable emotional or functional symptoms. This article explains its history, characteristics, modern diagnoses, causes, and t…

Id, Ego, and Superego — Freud's Structural Model of the Psyche Id, ego and super-ego Freud’s structural model divides the mind into id, ego and superego: instinctual drives, the reality‑oriented mediator, and internalized moral standards. Overview, development, fun…

Illusion: Perceptual Distortions, Types, Mechanisms, and Uses Illusion Overview of illusions: how sensory information is interpreted incorrectly, major types (visual, auditory, tactile, multimodal), historical study, mechanisms, examples, and practica…

Infant attachment: development, patterns, functions, and long‑term significance Infant attachment Overview of infant attachment: how early bonds form, common patterns identified by research, biological and social functions, measurement, cultural variation, implications for deve…

Infantilism (Adult Baby behavior): overview, characteristics, and distinctions Infantilism Infantilism, sometimes called adult baby behavior or paraphilic infantilism, is a pattern of role‑playing or sexual interest in infantile regression and diaper use; it varies widel…

Inner peace (peace of mind) Inner peace Inner peace is a stable mental state of calm, clarity, and acceptance that persists despite external stressors; it is cultivated through practice and found across philosophical, re…

Insomnia Insomnia is difficulty falling or staying asleep, a common symptom that affects daytime function. Causes include stress, medical and psychiatric conditions; management emphasizes s…

Intellectual disability A summary of intellectual disability: definition, diagnostic features, causes, supports, history of terminology, and distinctions from other learning or developmental differences.

Intelligence: concepts, measurement, and applications Intelligence Overview of intelligence as cognitive ability: definitions, components, history, measurement, debates about heredity and environment, applications, and important distinctions in th…

Intelligence quotient (IQ): definition, measurement, history, and uses Intelligence quotient A concise encyclopedia article on intelligence quotient (IQ): what it measures, common tests, historical origins, interpretation, applications, controversies (heritability, Flynn e…

Intensity of Preference Intensity of preference describes how strongly an individual favors one option over others; it contrasts with simple rankings and raises measurement and aggregation challenges acro…

Intimacy: Forms, Development, Importance, and Healthy Boundaries Intimacy Overview of intimacy: what it is, main types (emotional, physical, intellectual, spiritual), how it develops, cultural differences, benefits, risks, and ways to build healthy close…

Ipovlopsychophobia (fear of being photographed) Ipovlopsychophobia Ipovlopsychophobia is a specific phobia involving an intense fear of having one's photograph taken. This entry summarizes characteristics, causes, symptoms, treatments and differen…

Irreducible Mind: Toward a Psychology for the 21st Century Irreducible Mind A 2007 collection arguing for a nonreductive view of consciousness and presenting psychical-research cases that its authors say challenge materialist accounts of mind.

Jealousy (emotion) Jealousy Jealousy is a complex social emotion involving fear, resentment, or insecurity when a valued relationship or possession is threatened or when others have what one desires.

Jerome Bruner: Cognitive Psychologist and Educational Theorist Jerome Bruner Overview of Jerome S. Bruner — his life, major theories (modes of representation, discovery learning), key works, influence on education and cognitive psychology, and legacy.

Jordan Peterson: Canadian psychologist, writer, and public intellectual Jordan Peterson Overview of Jordan B. Peterson, his academic work in psychology, major books, public role, controversies, and cultural influence.

Judgment: decision-making, types, and influences Judgment Judgment (also judgement) is the mental process of forming an opinion or decision after considering information. This article explains forms, cognitive mechanisms, biases, developm…