Law

Next of Kin: Legal Meaning, Priority, Medical and Inheritance Roles Next of kin Overview of next of kin: who qualifies, typical priority, legal and medical roles, intestacy and escheat, jurisdictional differences, and practical alternatives such as wills and a…

Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution The Nineteenth Amendment (1920) prohibits denying the right to vote on the basis of sex, extending suffrage to women nationwide after decades of campaigning and state-by-state refo…

Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution Part of the Bill of Rights, the Ninth Amendment protects unenumerated rights by stating that listing certain rights does not deny others retained by the people.

No Child Left Behind Act A 2002 U.S. federal education law that expanded testing, accountability, and federal involvement in K–12 public schools, aiming to raise student achievement and close achievement g…

Northwest Ordinance (1787): Structure, Rights, and Legacy Northwest Ordinance Federal law that created the Northwest Territory (1787), set rules for territorial government, banned slavery there, protected civil liberties, promoted education, and established…

Not proven (Scottish criminal verdict) Not proven A unique verdict in Scots criminal law, 'not proven' is an acquittal distinct from 'not guilty'. It reflects a jury's unresolved doubt and has generated legal and public debate ove…

Notary: Role, Functions, and Types of Notarial Officers Notary Overview of notaries, their duties, legal role, common acts they perform, differences across systems, and typical uses such as witnessing signatures, administering oaths, and preve…

Nuremberg Laws (1935) Nuremberg Laws Two principal Nazi statutes enacted in 1935 that stripped Jews of German citizenship, forbade intermarriage, and established racial categories used to exclude and persecute people…

Nuremberg Principles — Foundations of modern international criminal law Nuremberg principles Legal principles derived from the post‑World War II tribunals that define individual criminal responsibility for aggressive war, war crimes and crimes against humanity and shaped l…

Oath A solemn, formal declaration or promise—often made publicly or before witnesses—used in legal, governmental, professional, and religious contexts to bind a person to truthfulness o…

Obscenity: definitions, history, legal standards, and cultural debates Obscenity Obscenity denotes words, images, or acts regarded as offensive to prevailing standards—often sexual. This article explains meanings, origins, legal tests, cultural differences, cen…

Obstruction of Justice: Definition, Forms, and Legal Context Obstruction of justice Overview of obstruction of justice: what it means, common acts (lying, hiding or destroying evidence), legal elements, history, examples, defenses, and differences from related off…

Official language: definition, status, and practical effects Official language An official language is one given special legal or administrative status by a state or organization. This article explains what that means, how recognition varies, uses, and common…

Ōmi Code (Asuka Kiyomihara Code) Ōmi Code An early Japanese legal code compiled c. 668–672 by Fujiwara no Kamatari under Emperor Tenji; a 22-volume precursor to the Taihō Code that helped shape the ritsuryō state. The orig…

Open Database License (ODbL) Open Database License A copyleft-style license for databases that permits use, distribution and modification while requiring attribution and share-alike for derived databases.

Open license A legal grant that lets others use, modify, and share creative works or software under defined conditions; includes permissive and copyleft types and influences reuse, collaboratio…

Oral law: traditions, transmission, and role in societies Oral law Oral law comprises rules and practices transmitted by word of mouth within communities, maintained by memory, elders and performance, and contrasted with written statutory codes.

Outlaw (legal and cultural concept) Outlaw An outlaw is a person placed outside the protection of the law or described as habitually criminal; the term has legal origins and broad cultural meanings in history, literature an…

Overcharge (economics and antitrust law) Overcharge Overcharge: the excess price paid because of price fixing or market power. Covers definition, measurement, legal remedies, estimation challenges, and relation to the Lerner Index.

Ownership: Concepts, Rights, Forms, and Historical Context Ownership A concise overview of ownership: definitions, typical rights, types of property, historical development, economic role, and common legal distinctions.

Pacific Railroad Acts (1862–1866) Pacific Railroad Acts Federal laws passed during the 1860s that enabled construction of the first U.S. transcontinental railroad through land grants, bonds, and other subsidies; their background, provis…

Paralegal (legal assistant) Paralegal A paralegal assists lawyers by performing substantive legal work under supervision. This article explains the role, common duties, education paths, regulation, workplaces and how p…

Parental leave: overview, types, policy and social impact Parental leave Parental leave (family leave) is workplace time off for caring for a new child. Policies vary worldwide by type, duration, pay, eligibility and aim to support child welfare, parent…

Paris Lees — British journalist and transgender rights campaigner Paris Lees British journalist, broadcaster and campaigner for transgender rights. Editor and columnist who has written for major UK newspapers and became the first transgender panellist on BB…

Parole (conditional early release from prison) Parole Parole is the conditional, supervised release of a prisoner before the full sentence ends, intended to support reintegration while protecting public safety.

Party (law) A legal party is an individual or entity recognized in a court or tribunal as having rights or duties in a proceeding. Covers plaintiff, defendant, petitioner, respondent, joinder,…

Patent A patent grants an inventor exclusive rights to an invention for a limited time. This article explains what patents protect, how they work, application steps, international aspects…

Patent attorney: role, qualifications, and professional practice Patent attorney A patent attorney is a legal specialist who helps inventors and organizations secure and enforce patents. This article explains roles, qualifications across jurisdictions, practice…

USA PATRIOT Act (2001): Overview, Key Provisions, and Debate Patriot Act A 2001 U.S. law that broadened surveillance, investigative and financial tools to combat terrorism. It triggered enduring debate over privacy, civil liberties, and later reforms to…

Peace treaty: formal agreements that end armed conflict Peace treaty A peace treaty is a formal agreement that brings a conflict to an end by setting terms for cessation of hostilities, borders, reparations, security arrangements and measures to pre…

Penalty (punishment, sanction, and sporting rule) Penalty A penalty is a consequence imposed for breaching a rule, law, contract, or sporting regulation. It ranges from fines and suspensions to imprisonment and competitive infractions, se…

People v. Jackson (2005) — Criminal trial of Michael Jackson People v. Jackson A widely publicized 2005 criminal trial in which entertainer Michael Jackson was accused of sexual misconduct by a minor and ultimately acquitted of all charges.

Per curiam decision A per curiam decision is an appellate court ruling issued in the name of the court rather than a named judge; typically concise, unsigned, and used to present a collective judgment…

Perjury: false statements under oath and related legal issues Perjury Perjury is the crime of knowingly making a false material statement under oath or under penalty of perjury. This article explains its elements, history, examples, penalties and com…

Permissive software license: overview, characteristics, and uses Permissive software license A permissive software license grants broad reuse rights with few conditions. This article explains what permissive licenses allow, how they differ from copyleft, common examples, h…

Permit: definition, types, issuance, legal effects and modern developments Permit An overview of permits: what they are, common types (building, business, driving, environmental), how they're issued, legal effects, enforcement, distinctions from licenses and cer…

Personal Injury Lawyer: Role, Practice Areas, and How Claims Work Personal injury lawyer Concise guide to personal injury lawyers: what they do, common types of cases, the typical process from claim to settlement or trial, fee arrangements, and how to choose counsel.

Personal property (movable property and chattels) Personal property Personal property, also called movables or chattels, comprises items that can be moved. This article explains categories, legal distinctions from real estate, examples, and common…

Peshawar High Court: role, structure, and significance Peshawar High Court The Peshawar High Court is the superior court for Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, seated in Peshawar. This article explains its jurisdiction, organization, history, functions and place within…

Petitioner (legal term) Petitioner A petitioner is a person or entity who files a formal petition asking a court, legislature, or administrative body to take a specified action; often used in appeals and special pro…

PHP License The PHP License is the license used for the core PHP implementation. It allows redistribution and modification under specific conditions and includes warranty disclaimers and namin…

Piracy: History, Types, and Modern Responses Piracy An overview of piracy as a maritime crime: characteristics, historical development, modern hotspots and anti‑piracy measures, plus distinctions between piracy, privateering and mar…

Pirate code (Articles of Agreement) Pirate code Rules and shipboard agreements used by historical pirates to regulate conduct, discipline, shares of plunder, and compensation; also the romanticized versions seen in literature an…

Plain View Doctrine (U.S. Fourth Amendment Exception) Plain view doctrine Legal rule permitting officers lawfully present to seize visible evidence or contraband without a warrant when its incriminating nature is immediately apparent.

Plaintiff: the party who initiates a civil action Plaintiff A plaintiff is the person or entity who brings a civil claim to court. This article explains the role, filings, common contexts, historical usage and key distinctions from related…

Platt Amendment (1901) and its impact on U.S.–Cuba relations Platt Amendment U.S. legislative conditions placed on Cuban independence in 1901 that limited Cuba's sovereignty, allowed U.S. intervention, and led to the Guantánamo lease; later modified and lar…

Pleading (civil procedure) Pleading Pleading is the formal written presentation of claims and defenses that begins a civil case. This article explains common forms, required contents, procedural steps, and notable ju…

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): the 'separate but equal' doctrine and its legacy Plessy v. Ferguson Landmark 1896 Supreme Court ruling that upheld state racial segregation under 'separate but equal', shaping Jim Crow laws until its principles were rejected in later decisions, not…