Selfishness: definitions, causes, debates and distinctions
Selfishness is prioritizing one’s own interests over others’. This article explains its meanings, traits, historical views, psychological and economic debates, moral perspectives, and how it differs from related concepts.
Overview
Selfishness describes a disposition to prioritize one’s own needs, desires, or welfare above those of other people. It is commonly understood as giving greater weight to personal benefit than to the wellbeing of others; for example, a person who shows more concern for yourself than for others when deciding how to act may be called selfish. This tendency can occur in small everyday choices or in larger, sustained patterns of behavior. Some forms of selfishness reflect clear disregard for others, which may include diminished capacity for empathy.
Characteristics and effects
Typical features attributed to selfishness include a focus on personal gain, an inclination to appropriate resources, and reduced consideration of others’ interests. Selfish acts can be instrumental (aimed at concrete benefits) or expressive (driven by feelings such as fear or pride). The social consequences range from minor conflicts to serious breakdowns in cooperation. By contrast, the term is often set against selflessness and should be distinguished from related concepts such as self‑centredness, which emphasizes attention on the self, and from forms of healthy self‑regard that are compatible with concern for others.
Historical and philosophical perspectives
Debate about selfishness has a long history in moral thought. Classical thinkers criticized people who sought only their own profit while sometimes praising self‑regarding actions that contributed to virtue or reputation; for instance, ancient commentators discussed figures like Aristotle who condemned purely self‑seeking behavior but accepted pursuits that led to deserved praise. In modern philosophy, discussions range from ethical condemnations to defenses of rational self‑interest.
Ethics, religion and psychology
In many ethical systems and religious traditions selfishness is treated as morally problematic. Major faiths often encourage care for others and name excessive self‑concern as a vice; within religions generally and in Christianity specifically, selfishness has been associated with pride and linked to vices listed among the Seven deadly sins. Philosophers and psychologists study the roots of selfish conduct, its relation to empathy and prosocial behavior, and how much self‑interest can coexist with social cooperation. Many clinicians and researchers argue that a moderate degree of self‑care—sometimes called healthy selfishness—is necessary for personal wellbeing and effective relationships; this position is supported in some strands of psychology and counseling practice (healthy level of selfishness).
Economic and modern debates
Economic and social theorists have taken varied views. Some classical and early modern commentators argued that individual self‑interest can produce social benefits: for example, thinkers have linked private motives to general advancement in society. Other critics stress that unregulated self‑interest can produce inequality or harm collective goods. Defenders of strong ethical egoism, such as proponents associated with Ayn Rand, argue that selfishness can be virtuous and a driver of human progress; these claims remain controversial in scholarly and public debate.
Distinctions, examples and considerations
- Distinguish selfishness from self‑care: the latter seeks personal welfare without necessarily harming others.
- Contrast selfish choices with altruism and cooperative norms studied in economics and social science.
- Consider cultural and contextual variation: what appears selfish in one setting may be prudent self‑preservation in another.
Further reading and sources often point to disciplinary discussions in ethics, morality, and philosophy, as well as empirical work in psychology and economics. Social analyses examine how individual choices affect the wider society; historical case studies and polemical writings such as those by Rand’s advocates and others provide contrasting perspectives. Responsible discussion recognizes both the harms of unchecked selfishness and the possible necessity of self‑regard for a well‑functioning life.
Criteria/Delimitation
1. primacy of the ego: regardless of the goal, purpose or effect of the attitude or action, the primacy of the ego is mandatory for egoism.
2. awareness: egoism is to be distinguished from egocentrism (see below). Selfishness takes place in a more or less conscious and/or intentional attitude. Egocentrism takes place unconsciously.
Definitions
Evolutionarily, the drives to behave selfishly arose from competitive behavior. They are a component of human social behavior.
Egoism is a highly controversial phenomenon, as it is understood, evaluated or defined differently by different people and groups. Often it is also used in an interest-driven way to achieve certain purposes: e.g. to justify power or to belittle others. Therefore, it makes sense to define the term more closely on the basis of further characteristics. Therefore, at least four forms of egoism can be distinguished. An attempt at classification could look like this: Following the subjective approach, a distinction is made between egoism in the narrower sense and egoism in the broader sense; following the objective approach, positive egoism is to be separated from negative egoism.
Selfishness in the broader sense:
If one considers egoism in the broadest sense, every human behaviour is and must be classified as egoistic, because every conscious action is based on an individual weighing of the benefit of the action. Thus, in the broadest sense, even altruistic behavior can be subordinated to the concept of egoism, since the altruistic person subjectively evaluates his actions as beneficial, because he perceives the benefit he intends for the other as a personal success (e.g. successful child rearing, successful medical help). This also applies to all other definitions, but is omitted from their meaning in order to create a simplification and make the term manageable.
Selfishness in the strict sense:
In a narrower sense, behaviour is to be classified as selfish if the person acting consciously accepts a disadvantage for another person and is solely concerned with his own advantage, although an alternative behaviour that meets the criteria of justice and morality as well as the principle of equality would be possible. If there is no awareness of the actual disadvantages for another person as a result of one's own actions or omissions, one can no longer speak of egoism in the narrower sense, but of egocentrism. Under the Wikipedia lemma "egocentrism", egoism is defined as "reflected self-indulgence". Here, the other is not perceived as an equal subject, but is only an instrument of one's own feeling of pleasure. This concept of egoism therefore has a negative connotation and is often used in the context of moral accusations.
Positive egoism:
In the objective approach, the consequences of human actions are evaluated because it is assumed that the true intentions of human actions are difficult or impossible to determine. One therefore speaks of positive egoism when the consequences of self-centred thinking and behaviour objectively have a general benefit and do not harm individuals. In particular, the idea of competition is based on this positive conception of egoism. This egoism describes the driving, prosperity- and thus general welfare-promoting effects of self-centred thinking.
Another phenomenon of positive egoism is "cooperative egoism", which can be observed above all in the USA: those individuals who are most committed to egoistic values such as career and self-fulfilment are often at the same time those who value communal activities highly and spend a large part of their free time helping others. Cooperative egoism is also referred to as "altruistic individualism". This shows that positively selfish motives can blur with altruistic goals.
Ayn Rand's "Objectivism" describes a so-called "rational" egoism, which is presented by its proponents as reasonable and productive action for one's own benefit and with respect for the negative protective rights of other individuals. These rights essentially protect life, liberty and property in the sense of a defence against physical violence; protection against structural violence, on the other hand, is absent from "Objectivism".
Negative selfishness:
This includes forms of self-centred thinking, insofar as their consequences are detrimental to the general good and cause harm to individuals. Social differences, ruthlessness, war and human catastrophes are objectively ascertainable possible consequences of this understanding of egoism.
Related articles
Author
AlegsaOnline.com Selfishness: definitions, causes, debates and distinctions Leandro Alegsa
URL: https://en.alegsaonline.com/art/88688
Sources
- simple.wiktionary.org : selfish