Peninsular War (1807–1814): Conflict on the Iberian Peninsula
A major theater of the Napoleonic Wars fought across Spain and Portugal (1807–1814), notable for British intervention, widespread guerrilla resistance and its contribution to Napoleon’s eventual defeat.
Overview
The Peninsular War (1807–1814) was a prolonged conflict on the Iberian Peninsula between the First French Empire under Napoleon Bonaparte and the kingdoms and peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, including the Spanish Empire, Spain and Portugal. It became one of the most important and exhausting fronts of the broader Napoleonic Wars, drawing in British forces and local irregulars and shaping military and political developments in Europe.
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How the war began
At first France and Spain were nominal allies, and in 1807 allied French and Spanish troops together invaded and occupied Portugal to enforce continental policies against Britain. The situation changed abruptly in 1808 when French forces turned on their former partner and became enemies of Spain. Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as king of Spain, an act that provoked widespread popular uprisings and organized resistance.
Characteristics of the fighting
The war combined large set-piece battles and sieges with persistent irregular operations. British expeditionary forces, Portuguese troops reorganized under British direction, and Spanish regulars fought alongside countless local partisans. The Spanish popular resistance gave rise to small-scale, mobile bands that harassed French columns and supply lines—actions that led to the adoption of the term guerilla, from the Spanish word for “little war,” to describe guerrilla warfare on a modern scale.
Key events and figures
British commanders, most notably Arthur Wellesley (later the Duke of Wellington), won a series of notable victories and sieges that shifted momentum against the French. Fighting included entrenched sieges of frontier fortresses and decisive battles fought across varying terrain. In the final phase allied forces pressed into southern France, and the campaign reached northern points such as Toulouse as Napoleon’s position in Europe collapsed in 1814.
Notable battles and operations
- Major set-piece battles and sieges across Spain and Portugal that determined regional control.
- Widespread guerrilla actions that disrupted French logistics and tied down sizeable forces.
- Anglo-Portuguese expeditions and coordinated multinational operations that gradually expelled French forces.
Consequences and legacy
The Peninsular War had political and military consequences far beyond the peninsula. Militarily, it drained French manpower and resources and helped to weaken Napoleon’s hold on Europe. Politically, Spanish resistance produced new centers of government and reform—most notably the Cortes that met in Cádiz and produced a liberal constitution in 1812—while Portugal and Britain reinforced their strategic ties. The conflict also left a lasting place in military history for irregular warfare; the word and concept of guerilla entered many languages as a result.
Previous story
The First Consul of France Napoleon Bonaparte forced the Treaty of San Ildefonso on Spain in October 1800. This Franco-Spanish alliance led to a resurgence of conflict with the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Manuel de Godoy became the "strong man" of Spain, while formally Pedro Ceballos Guerra served as prime minister. In early 1801, Godoy was appointed Generalissimo and Admiral of Spain and "India" (the term for Spanish America). The Peace of Amiens (March 1802) between Britain and France provided Spain with a brief but much-needed respite. In December 1804, Godoy declared war on the United Kingdom. The Franco-Spanish fleet suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar on 21 October 1805. Godoy's opponents personally blamed him for the high losses in men and material and demanded the termination of the alliance with France. Therefore Godoy called for war against France in October 1806. But already at the beginning of 1807 he had to end his anti-French policy. Napoleon I. demanded the provision of 15.000 Spanish soldiers. These soldiers fought in the Napoleonic army in Northern Germany and East Prussia against Prussia and Russia (Fourth Coalition War).
On November 21, 1806, Napoleon decreed the Continental Blockade, an economic blockade, over the British Isles. It was intended to bring Great Britain to its knees by means of economic warfare. In addition, the Continental Blockade was intended to protect the French economy against any European and transatlantic competition. Since it was not possible to reach a treaty agreement with Portugal to comply with the blockade, Napoleon intended to invade Portugal.
On 27 October 1807, France and Spain concluded the secret Treaty of Fontainebleau. In this treaty they agreed on the conquest and partition of Portugal. In order for the French troops to reach Portugal by land, Spain granted the French passage through its territory. At the end of 1807, General Jean Andoche Junot received from Napoleon the command of the troops assembled at Salamanca to occupy Portugal. As early as October 17, 1807, Napoleon wrote Junot an order that he must be in Lisbon by December 1, as friend or foe. Junot complied, within 11 days the French marched in forced marches from Salamanca to Abrantes, close to Lisbon. On November 30, Junot and 1500 soldiers entered the city without a fight. The day before, King João VI and his court, accompanied by the government and important nobles, had left for Brazil by sea.
French invasion
At the beginning of 1808, French troops began to occupy strategically important places in Spain. This development prompted the Spanish King Charles IV to plan the transfer of his throne to a safer country, such as Mexico. When the plans became known among the population, it led to an uprising, which was primarily directed against the government and person of Godoy. When Charles learned that his son Ferdinand had asked Napoleon for help against Godoy and French troops were invading Spain, the royal family fled to Aranjuez. On March 17, 1808, the Mutiny of Aranjuez broke out; the king was arrested and forced to have Godoy arrested. His son was hailed by the people as King Ferdinand VII the following day, but was forced to relinquish the crown on May 6 under pressure from the French. Charles, his wife and Godoy fled to France, where Charles was forced to abdicate the Spanish throne in favour of Napoleon's brother Joseph Bonaparte.
On 10 April 1808, Ferdinand left for Bayonne to negotiate with Napoleon, leaving the government in his absence to a council of regency chaired by his uncle Antonio Pascual de Borbón. On 20 April 1808, Ferdinand and, at the end of April 1808, Charles IV arrived in Bayonne from Aranjuez. There, after prolonged balking, Ferdinand returned the crown to his father on 6 May 1808 and placed himself under the protection of Napoleon, who ordered him to stay at Valençay Castle with an annual pension of one million francs. Charles had already previously agreed to his resignation in favour of Joseph Bonaparte. De facto, this operation was a capture of the royal family by Napoleon.
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AlegsaOnline.com Peninsular War (1807–1814): Conflict on the Iberian Peninsula Leandro Alegsa
URL: https://en.alegsaonline.com/art/75567