Libyan Civil War (2014–present)

The civil war in Libya since 2014 has been a war between troops and militias of the government of Fayiz as-Saraj under the Government of National Accord (GNA), which controls parts of western Libya with the capital Tripoli, and the troops of the ruler of eastern Libya, Khalifa Haftar. The United Nations said that as of August 2015, there were 435,000 internally displaced persons and that about one million people had fled to Tunisia.

Around 2.4 million people in Libya are in need of humanitarian assistance, while around 1.2 million suffer from malnutrition or go hungry (most of them in Benghazi, which has been in conflict since 2014). Around 250,000 refugees from other countries are in Libya, often at the mercy of violence and sexual assault or being used for forced labor.

The conflict was further escalated by the intervention of the terrorist organization Islamic State (IS) in the fighting. The IS proclaimed an emirate in Libya in the fall of 2014, fought both sides, carried out attacks in their territories and temporarily brought some areas under its control. In the IS stronghold of Sirte, IS fighters established a regime of terror marked by atrocities and crimes against humanity. In 2016, IS largely lost its territories in Libya and went underground.

The Tuareg national minority took advantage of the situation and established a virtually independent state of its own in a region around Ghat in southwestern Libya.

The chairwoman of the African Union Commission, Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, said in April 2015 that there was "no longer a state as such" in Libya; this had been feared earlier because of the contrast between the western and eastern parts of the country.

On December 17, 2015, a peace agreement was reached between the rival camps from Tobruk and Tripoli, which provides for the reconstruction of the Libyan state and its institutions and a unity government under Fayiz as-Saraj by 2018. However, after the new government was formed, parliament did not recognize the new government, which degraded what was supposed to be a "unity government" into another civil war party. However, the latter was able to hold its own in Tripolitania, where it defeated its rivals from the New General National Congress militarily in May 2017, as well as its allies from the Tobruk camp in November 2017, resulting in a permanent military stalemate. Since October 2017, Egypt has been discussing an agreement to form a joint army of the two armed forces from western Libya and eastern Libya.

Backed by his militia and a network of alliances he had forged with local leaders over five years, Khalifa Haftar marched his forces on the capital Tripoli in spring 2019. Backed by Egypt, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and apparently reinforced by mercenaries from the Russian group Wagner, he is demanding to be appointed "National Military Leader" who should not be subject to any political control.

Five years after the start of the refugee crisis in Europe from 2015, in which Libya is considered a transit country for refugees to Europe, and nine years after the start of the civil war in Libya in February 2011, the parties to the conflict with their supporting states decided in an international conference in Berlin in January 2020 to agree on a ceasefire, an arms embargo and a withdrawal of all foreign combat units before the parties broke all agreements and the war continued.

To the background

After the civil war and international military intervention in 2011, the country was rocked by fighting between rival militias. Since the fall of long-time ruler Muammar al-Gaddafi, large parts of the country have been under the control of these militias, which did not report to the National Transitional Council. Political observers spoke of a power struggle between militias and the Transitional Council and warned of a new civil war.

In addition to the permanently poor security situation since 2011, the crisis was triggered by two key events. First, General Chalifa Haftar had his private army, al-Saika, occupy the Libyan parliament in May 2014. The goal of this action had been to capture Islamists. Haftar's troops declared, "We, members of the army and revolutionaries, announce the suspension of the General National Congress." Subsequently, his troops and supporters hunted down his political opponents.

The conflict finally escalated after Libya's 2014 parliamentary election was not recognized by the Islamist Alliance Dawn. This alliance then occupied the capital and expelled the government and parliament to the east of the country. After the troops of the General National Congress captured the capital, the counter-government allegedly committed serious human rights violations against political opponents and civilians.

Since February 2015, the United Nations has been trying to form a unity government from the two governments in order to stop the civil war, stabilize the country and fight the "Islamic State" terrorist group.

Groups involved in the Libyan civil war

The two main warring parties around Fayiz as-Saraj and Khalifa Haftar do not have a de facto united army fighting for them, but rather an association of militias, tribes, mercenaries and criminal gangs, some of whom are enemies of one another.

The "unity government

After the government formed from the 2014 parliamentary elections was toppled by Islamist militias and the previously internationally recognized government under Abdullah Thenni was forced to flee eastward, a new, internationally recognized unity government under Fayiz as-Sarraj (also spelled Sarraj or Serraj) emerged under UN mediation during 2015. This "government of national unity" was proclaimed by signing an agreement on December 17, 2015, and was intended to serve as a transitional solution until new parliamentary elections were held after two years. De facto, however, this unity government with Tripolitania controls only the northwest of the country.

Until then, however, the capital Tripoli had been controlled by Islamist militias, who tried to prevent Saraj's arrival at his official residence by all means in March 2016. In the end, the head of government was only able to enter the Libyan capital from his Tunisian exile on a warship via the Abu Sita military base. Subsequently, fighting broke out in Tripoli between the unity government and the militias controlling the city. Thereafter, partly under international pressure and support for Sarradsch, the new unity government gradually gained control of Tripoli. However, the "counter-government" in eastern Libya did not renounce its claims to power and continues (2018) to control most of the country.

Toward the end of the "transition period," in 2017, General Chalifa Haftar, who leads the Libyan army in the east ruled from Tobruk, spoke out more frequently and also made claims to power. Back in 2014, he had stormed the parliament in Tripoli as a militia leader.

The Armed Forces of the Unity Government - Libyan Army

The government's "Libyan Army" is composed of parts of the Armed Forces of Libya and three major militia alliances.

1. "Dawn: Based in Misrata, the militia forms the largest grouping here and is said to comprise 40,000 fighters. The air forces of the "Libyan Army" are stationed in Misrata.
2. "Libya's shield": an alliance of various Islamist militias that are said to be close to al-Qaeda. Parts of them are said to have joined the "IS offshoots". They are said to comprise between 6,000 and 12,000 fighters.
3. "LROR" (Operations Center of the Libyan Revolutionaries) (Arabic غرفة عمليات ثوار ليبيا): the "LROR" was established as a kind of praetorian guard by former President Busahmein in May 2013. The militia was allegedly responsible for the kidnapping of former Prime Minister Ali Seidan. The "LROR" is said to comprise a few hundred fighters.

Criticism

This alliance is accused of cooperating with radical Islamist and terrorist groups such as Ansar al-Sharia and of striving for an Islamic state. Individual groups within the alliance are considered close to al-Qaeda. After the conquest of Tripoli, they were accused of the most serious human rights violations against political opponents there. In particular, the most radical Islamist militias, which aspire to an Islamist state of God, are considered a major obstacle to the formation of a unity government.

The government in the East

The government under Prime Minister Abdullah Thenni resides in al-Baida. Its current head of state is Aguila Saleh Issa, who has been Libya's official head of state since 2014. It relies on the Council of Deputies, elected in 2014, which resides in Tobruk.

However, the parliament is "illegal" according to a November 2014 ruling by the Libyan Court of Justice, which is based in Tripoli. The government in Tobruk does not recognize this ruling, however, because it is said to have been reached under threat of violence. The government controls most of eastern Libya as well as the Jabal Nafusa mountain region in the west with the city of az-Zintan. It is allied with Khalifa Haftar's forces. Together they form the Dignity Alliance (Arabic عملية الكرامة Amaliya al-Karama).

The government controls most of Libya, though many regions have little population and the situation in Fessan in particular is very unclear between Tubu, Tuareg, and Islamist militias (who use the desert as a retreat).

The Armed Forces of Haftar - Libyan National Army (LNA)

The government of the east is assisted by the Armed Forces of Libya. Haftar was accused by Prime Minister Thenni, the Armed Forces of Libya, and the Libyan parliament in May 2014 of attempting a coup, as his militias stormed the parliament in Tripoli. He has functioned as an obscure warlord ever since.

Before his appointment as commander-in-chief of the army, Haftar relied on his al-Saika militia, which has about 5,000 members. He continues to head this militia.

Criticism

The alliance, especially General Haftar's, is accused by its opponents of wanting to establish a military dictatorship in Libya. Even some of his current allies, such as Prime Minister Abdullah Thenni, made these accusations against General Haftar in the summer of 2014. In May 2014, Thenni referred to Haftar and his forces as "outlaws." Because General Haftar's forces are de facto subject only to the control of Haftar and his general staff and wage indiscriminate war against both his Islamist and political opponents, they are considered a major obstacle to the formation of a unity government. It is also accused of serious human rights violations and indiscriminate destruction.

International players

Allies and supporters of the government of Fayiz as-Sarraj (Sarraj)

• United States United States: U.S. Special Forces have been in the country since December 2015, but the U.S. government confirms only that the units are in the country in an advisory capacity. In 2016, the U.S. supported an offensive against IS in Sirte with airstrikes and has continued to occasionally bomb al-Qaeda and IS positions in the center of the country since then, most recently in September 2017, when the U.S. says more than a dozen Islamists were killed.
• Italy Italy: Italy is considered Serraj's closest ally. Since 2016, Italy has maintained a field hospital in Misrata for sanitary and humanitarian aid, Operation Hippocrates. However, the Italian parliament was not informed about the deployment of the units to Libya at the time, according to the opposition. In 2017, Finance Guard naval units with six vessels were deployed to the port of Tripoli, Operation Safe Sea, to assist the Libyan Coast Guard in combating human trafficking and illegal immigration. In 2018, both missions were united under one command and operate under the acronym MIASIT (Missione bilaterale di assistenza e supporto in Libia engl. Bilateral Assistance and Support Mission in Libya). The Italian contingent comprises 400 soldiers.
• France France admitted on July 20, 2016 that special forces were operating in Libya. This came after a helicopter carrying three soldiers crashed during an intelligence operation. However, Le Monde reported as early as February 2016 that special forces were in the country.
• United Kingdom United Kingdom: Britain allegedly sent SAS soldiers to Libya. However, the British government refuses to comment on this issue. The soldiers are said to be working closely with Jordanian special forces. One admits only to use the Royal Air Force for reconnaissance flights in Libya.
• Turkey Turkey: Turkey under President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan has supported numerous Islamist movements since the upheaval in the Arab world in 2011. The Muslim Brotherhood in particular has received generous support from Erdoğan since 2011. After Tunisia was temporarily ruled by Ennahda and Egypt by the Freedom and Justice Party, and in Libya the Justice and Development Party was close to former head of state Nuri Busahmein, these plans seemed to be working. But after the 2013 military coup in Egypt toppled the Muslim Brotherhood and voted out Ennahda in Tunisia, the Turkish government focused on keeping at least the counter-government in Tripoli. On February 23, 2015, the recognized government of Libya ended cooperation with all Turkish companies, which until then had a strong presence in Libya's oil industry. Also, since 2015, Air Libya flights operating between Tripoli and Turkey were to make a stopover in the eastern part of Libya to prevent jihadists from Syria or Iraq, as well as fighters, weapons, and supplies for "Dawn," from entering the country.

However, Turkey remained active in the Libyan civil war on the side of the GNA, with its own drone systems deployed in Libya since 2019 at the latest. A U.S. Department of Defense report in September 2020 leveled serious accusations against Turkey-backed Syrian mercenaries in Libya. According to AFRICOM, the mercenaries from Syria are inexperienced, uneducated, and motivated only by the prospect of high earnings; thefts and sexual assaults they commit have further deteriorated the security situation in western Libya. The ministry gave the number of Syrian mercenaries as 5,000, commanded and paid by the private Turkish mercenary company Sadat, in addition to several hundred regular Turkish troops, including personnel to control drone systems.

• Qatar Qatar: Qatar also emerged as a major supporter of the Muslim Brotherhood after the Arab upheaval in 2011. Qatar has provided financial support to Islamist movements in Libya in particular since the end of the 2011 revolution. In February 2015, Thenni accused Qatar of supplying weapons to "Dawn."
• Jordan Jordan: Jordanian special forces to work closely with British SAS.
• Sudan Sudan: In June 2014, General Haftar's spokesman accused Sudan of passing weapons paid for by Qatar to Islamist militias led by Abd al-Hakim Balhaj. Sudanese forces denied this. However, a UN commission determined that Sudan had leased three Mil Mi-24/35 attack helicopters to Libya in violation of the arms embargo. To prevent and intercept airlifts from Sudan, the Haftar-loyal Air Defense Department announced it would install P-12 and P-18 radars in the Kufra oases near the Libyan-Sudanese border. In February 2015, the Sudanese government of Umar al-Bashir declared its recognition and support for the Tobruk government.
• Ukraine Ukraine's role in the conflict is very unclear. Initially, a Libyan-Turkish delegation visited Ukraine in August 2014 to purchase assault rifles and ammunition. In February 2015, Ukrainian Foreign Minister Pavlo Klimkin became the world's first foreign minister to receive a delegation from "Dawn" in Kyiv. Observers assume that "Dawn" wants to make Mig-23 fighter jets from the Gaddafi regime era operational again with Ukrainian help. These efforts have apparently been successful. "Dawn" has had its own air force since February 2015, which has carried out attacks on government-held towns such as Ras Lanuf and az-Zintan. As in the case of Belarus, the reasons for Ukraine's presence in Libya likely stem from the fact that many of the Libyan militias' weapons systems come from the former USSR or Russia. Therefore, both Ukraine and Belarus have the technical capability to supply spare parts or ammunition. Speculatively, Ukraine's economy is doing extremely badly and the counter-government has a solvent sponsor in Qatar. Such cooperation was seen at least in the civil war in Syria. Here, Turkey (as a transit country), Ukraine (as an arms transporter), Sudan (as an arms manufacturer), and Qatar (as a sponsor) worked closely together in arming the Syrian opposition. This is the same coalition that is now suspected of arming the counter-government.

Allies and supporters of General Haftar

• Egypt Egypt's intervention in the war has both domestic and foreign policy reasons. In terms of foreign policy, the government in Cairo fears that Libya could become a retreat for the IS in the chaos, or is in fact in the process of becoming one. Since radical Islamists and IS offshoots are already being fought in the Sinai Peninsula in the course of the Sinai uprising, there are fears of a two-front war. After the military coup in Egypt in 2013, the Egyptian military was able to overthrow the Muslim Brotherhood that ruled there. After "Fadschr Libia" was able to take Tripoli, many Muslim Brothers fled to Tripoli. As a result, Cairo is supporting General Haftar in hopes that he will fight both IS offshoots and the Egyptian government's domestic enemies. Egypt is suspected to have supplied Mil Mi-8 helicopters and MIG-21 fighter jets.
• United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates: The United Arab Emirates (UAE) opposes Fajr Libya primarily for domestic political reasons. It seeks a pre-Arab Spring order in 2011 and is fighting independent Islamist movements such as the Muslim Brotherhood. Since February 2015, an agreement has been reached with the government of Sudan (which supports the counter-government) to establish a transitional government in Libya.
  The air forces of both countries flew various attacks on counter-government cities such as Tripoli and Misrata since August 2014. In 2019, the UAE flew a total of 850 drone and jet strikes against Sarraj.
• Russia Russia: Before 2011, Libya bought weapons from Russia in large numbers. These relations are now to be renewed. As relations between Egypt (Haftar's main ally) and Russia are also tightening and Russia's economy is going through a crisis, Libya offers itself as a new export market. Private mercenaries from Russia's Wagner Group are involved in the conflict. In September 2020, the U.S. Department of Defense put the number of Russian mercenaries at 3,000, with another 2,000 Russian-backed Syrian mercenaries fighting on Haftar's side.
• Belarus Belarus: According to a UN report, Belarus supplies weapons to government forces despite an arms embargo, including 3,000 tons of ammunition. Fifteen flights were made to Ghadames airport, where weapons were transferred to the militias from az-Zintan ("Zintan Brigades"). Between August 31, 2014, and September 21, 2014, 20 flights alone delivered 900 tons of ammunition to the government. Belarus's interest in the conflict is likely solely economic. The state arms factories Belvneshpromservis often supply weapons to civil war countries even against existing arms embargoes.

The "Islamic State" and "al-Qaeda" terrorist organizations

The confused situation in Libya between the two governments with their international allies, an unclear legal situation, numerous autonomous militias and warlords working on their own account is exploited by offshoots of the terrorist organizations "Islamic State" and "al-Qaeda" to fight both alliances and conquer their territories. The first Libyan city controlled by the offshoot of "IS" was Darna. Attempts by "Amaliya al-Karamah" to retake the city failed. The "IS" offshoot was even able (despite help from the Egyptian Air Force for "Dignity") to initially expand its presence around Darna. It was not until the summer of 2015 that a coalition of Islamist militias and armed residents succeeded in driving IS out of Darna. Another new "IS" stronghold is in Sirte. Following the capture of an-Nufaliya, this city was apparently conquered after fighting with the militias of "Fajr Libia" in February 2015. The tribe of Firjan refused to submit to IS; as a result, the terrorist militia shot and killed a preacher there who was a member of that tribe. Subsequently, predominantly young Frejjan people rose up against their rule. In revenge, IS killed numerous tribesmen; casualty figures vary from 38 to 200. IS victims were publicly crucified and beheaded in the city. Neither of Libya's governments came to the aid of the town's residents fighting IS.

After the beheading of 21 Coptic Christians in Sirte, Egypt openly intervened in the war for the first time and bombed Libyan IS positions. Qatar then recalled its ambassador from Egypt. Following this move, Egypt accused Qatar of supporting "terrorism" in Libya. The Gulf Cooperation Council, on the other hand, criticized Egypt for "false accusations." As the war between "Dignity" and "Dawn" continues to escalate and both sides fly airstrikes on each other's cities, "IS" manages to advance further against both sides in Libya in March 2015. A Libyan human rights activist wrote on March 3, 2015, "So many bombings today in Libya. And none of them against IS."

Emblem of al-Saika

War history since May 2014

May 16-18, 2014: "Operation Dignity" - Offensives in Benghazi and Tripoli

The war began on May 16, 2014, with an offensive by Haftar's forces in Benghazi against Islamist groups such as Ansar al-Sharia. The latter is believed to be responsible for several kidnappings and assassinations, including that of then-U.S. Ambassador J. Christopher Stevens. This fight was also joined by the Libyan Air Force and the As-Saiqa special forces. Fighting continued into late February 2015 and is one of the flashpoints of the war. Benghazi airport in particular is contested between the Libyan National Army and Ansar al-Sharia.

On May 17, 2014, Haftar announced that the Libyan parliament had been deposed and that Tripoli would soon be "liberated." He declared that the General National Congress was illegal because the parliament had tolerated terrorists gaining a foothold in Libya. Head of government Thenni in turn called Haftar's offensive illegal. The government then imposed a no-fly zone over Benghazi.

Haftar's militias attempted to capture Tripoli beginning May 18, 2014. Equipped with anti-aircraft guns loaded on pickup trucks, mortars and rocket launchers, the Libyan National Congress was attacked. Many congressmen reportedly "ran for their lives" here. On the same day, officers announced the dissolution of the National Congress. 40 members of parliament and most of the army joined Haftar. On May 21, 2014, the Alliance of National Forces announced that it would support Haftar against "the forces of terrorism, darkness, murder, and chaos." The interior minister also joined the new alliance.

In a televised address, Haftar, surrounded by officers, accused the Islamist-led parliament of turning Libya into a state that would "sponsor terrorism" and where "terrorists" would infiltrate the government and the state. But the coup failed when initial fighting was reported from Tagiura and Tripoli. Ansar al-Sharia accused Haftar of waging a "war against Islam" and called him the "true terrorist." Haftar's alliance described it as a mix of "former members of the Gaddafi regime and their masters from the West."

May 22-31: Pro-Haftar demonstrations:

The days following the dramatic escalation of both camps were marked by mass protests for General Haftar. Tens of thousands of Libyans demonstrated in support of Haftar with shouts and banners such as "No to the militias, or Libya will become a new Afghanistan." In Tripoli, people demonstrated against the parliament and in support of the "National Army." They sang the national anthem and carried banners reading "Yes to dignity" and "Libya is in big trouble, we want the police, we want the army!"

The Fridays of May 23 and 30, 2014, were called "Days of Dignity" by Haftar's supporters (after the offensive Haftar launched a week earlier). Part of the government issued a statement supporting the protests. Within the government itself, there was bitter infighting between the two camps over the post of prime minister. At first, the Islamist camp seemed to prevail with the election of Ahmed Miitig. But then the pro-Haftar camp, with Defense Minister Thenni, gained the upper hand.

June 2014: Parliamentary Election and Fighting in Benghazi

In June 2014, Thenni and his cabinet left Tripoli for al-Baida as the situation in the heated capital became too uncertain. Tarek Mitri, head of the United Nations Support Mission in Libya, tried to restart talks between the two camps. That same day, Haftar had his air force bomb the positions of his enemies.

In June 2014, Haftar's forces launched various attacks on Benghazi. However, they did not succeed in capturing the city. The United States, on the other hand, succeeded in capturing the suspected Islamist terrorist Ahmed Abu Chatallah using a special commando. On June 22, 2014, General Haftar announced a 48-hour ultimatum in which all citizens of Qatar and Turkey were to leave eastern Libya.

In the midst of this chaos, the 2014 parliamentary elections in Libya took place, which were marked by murders of political opponents. For example, on June 25, 2014, human rights activist Salwa Bughaigis was shot dead in Benghazi. The election was won by the forces around Haftar.

July 2014: Battle for Tripoli and capture of Benghazi by Ansar al-Sharia

In early July 2014, the groups that had not recognized the election results at the end of June or were in opposition to Haftar gathered their troops in the Tripoli countryside and began an offensive on the capital on July 13, 2014, under the code name Fadschr Libia. About a month of fighting took place around the International Airport in the Battle for Tripoli Airport. The fighting was fought with heavy artillery and Grad rocket launchers. The civil war that broke out reached a new dimension with the intervention of Egypt and the United Arab Emirates. The air forces of both countries supported the government forces (Haftars) in defending Tripoli and bombed "Dawn" positions. The Libyan civil war was now reaching its next stage of escalation and had become a proxy war between regional powers.

At the end of July 2014, the UN evacuated its staff after 13 employees fell victim to the fighting. Most foreign embassies also now withdrew their staff from Tripoli. Mohamed Sowan, spokesman for the Justice and Construction Party (local offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood), welcomed the offensive on the capital. He said it was necessary in response to Haftar's "Operation Dignity" offensive.

Government forces also found themselves on the defensive in Benghazi. Here, Ansar al-Sharia proclaimed an emirate in Libya in July 2014. This emirate later swore allegiance to the "Islamic State" under leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. Haftar described the army's withdrawal from Benghazi as a "tactical retreat."

August 2014: Capture of Tripoli by "Dawn".

In August 2014, the Council of Deputies passed a law formally disbanding the insurgent militias in the west. At the same time, the parliament asked the UN for help in dealing with the insurgency in the west.

The city of Darna in the east has now increasingly become another flashpoint in the war. It has been a stronghold of radical Islamists for years. IS supporters formed in the surrounding area and fighting began against Haftar's forces.

On August 12, the police chief of Tripoli was assassinated. On August 17, 2014, initially unidentified - later the Libyan National Army Haftars claimed responsibility - aircraft bombed "Dawn" positions in Tripoli. On August 23, 2014, "Dawn" announced that Tripoli had fallen into its hands after a month of fighting. After the fall of the capital, the militias of "Dawn" began to "settle accounts" with the supporters of General Haftar and the government. Numerous people fell victim to assassinations or kidnappings, including former Prime Minister Mustafa Abu Shagur.

In the midst of this turmoil, Thenni's interim government, which had once fled Tripoli for the east of the country, declared its resignation. Shortly thereafter, this government finally lost control of Tripoli, where armed militiamen blockaded ministries and state buildings.

The Council of Deputies declared the counter-government to be "terrorists. The latter had now reinstated the old parliament as the "New General National Congress" and in turn declared the parliament in Tobruk "illegal". For security reasons, the Council of Deputies met on a Greek ferry near the Egyptian border.

Development by the end of 2014: Formation of a "counter-government" in Tripoli

With the fall of Tripoli, the National Assembly and its government, which fled to Tobruk, lost control of the country's former capital. There, under the influence of local militias, a new government, called the "counter-government," is now forming, as well as its own new parliament - to which the parliament in Tobruk responded with a terrorism law aimed at the "Islamist counter-parliament" in Tripoli. From now on, two governments share control of the country.

In September 2014, "Dawn" (Fajr Libya) expanded its positions in western Libya. On September 15, 2014, the Berber-majority town of Gharyan was the target of airstrikes, according to General Haftar by deploying his forces. U.S. officials, however, blamed the air forces of Egypt and the United Arab Emirates.

In October 2014, there was heavy fighting around Kikla between "Dawn" and the "Sintan Brigades" allied with Haftar. Now the mountainous region of Jabal Nafusa also became a theater of war. In mid-October 2014, Haftar's forces and the Egyptian Air Force pressed a new offensive on Benghazi.

Fessan has now also become a war zone. Tubu militias, who are close to the government in Tobruk, fought here for oil fields against Tuareg militias allied with the counter-government in Tripoli.

At the end of October 2014, the "IS" offshoot was able to capture Darna. This was the first city that the "Islamic State" was able to bring under its control outside Iraq and Syria. Thereafter, heavy fighting with government forces took place in the surrounding area.

In November 2014, the government was able to recapture Kikla, while the counter-government in Fessan announced the capture of the "El-Sharara" oil field.

The first peace talks between the two parliaments took place in early November 2014. These took place in Sudan after mediation by the government there. Since November 2014, however, there have been more attacks in the areas of both parliaments. Both Tobruk and Tripoli were the target of attacks.

New attacks on Tripoli by General Haftar's air force took place on November 24 and 25, 2014. A court in Tripoli ordered Haftar to be detained as a result. On December 2, 2014, there were further airstrikes by Haftar's forces on the town of Zuwara in western Libya.

In December 2014, demonstrations for the re-establishment of the Kingdom of Libya took place in Tripoli. A constitutional monarchy would end the escalated crisis between the two camps.

At the end of December 2014, "Dawn" began Operation Sunrise with the aim of capturing the major oil loading ports such as Ras Lanuf. This operation was repelled by government forces with the help of the air force, but set fire to the country's largest oil tanks. On December 28, the government forces' air force bombed Misrata. In late December, "Dawn" also launched an attack on Sirte.

January to February 2015 - "Islamic State" offensives in Darna and Sirte

In January 2015, a Greek tanker was bombed off the coast of the (IS-occupied) town of Darna. On January 6, Turkish Airlines became the last foreign airline to cease operations to Libya.

In mid-January, counter-government leader Nuri Busahmein traveled to Turkey for talks and met President Erdoğan and Prime Minister Ahmet Davutoğlu. On January 16, a cease-fire was agreed between Dignity and Dawn. Both sides agreed to further talks under UN mediation.

On January 27, there was an attack on the "Corinthia Hotel" in Tripoli, which killed ten people (including five foreigners). IS later claimed responsibility for the attack.

In early February 2015, "IS" was able to capture an oil field south of Sirte. On February 9, IS media announced that the small town of an-Nufaliya had been captured. Thereupon, an emir had been appointed as the representative of the "caliph" al-Baghdadi. On February 13, Sirte was finally captured as well.

On February 15, a video was released by "IS" showing the beheading of 21 Coptic Christians in Libya. Egyptian air forces then launched retaliatory attacks on Derna and the surrounding area. On February 20, "IS" carried out an attack on Gubba, the home of interim President Aguila Saleh Issa. Forty people were killed in this attack. Both the U.S. government and the two Libyan alliances condemned the attack.

In early February, both governments attempted to obtain weapons from Russia and Ukraine (despite existing UN arms embargoes). Since February, "Dawn" has also had its own air force. Prior to new peace talks, "Dawn" flew airstrikes on the government's oil loading stations. "Dignity" then attacked important counter-government infrastructure facilities such as Mitiga International Airport.

On February 23, 2015, the United Nations stated in a paper that the arms embargo was increasingly permeable and that more and more states were breaking the embargo. Explicitly named were: Egypt, the United Arab Emirates and Belarus on the side of the government, and Turkey, Sudan, Qatar and Ukraine on the side of the counter-government.

March 2015: Peace Talks and the Battle for Sirte

General Haftar's appointment as commander-in-chief of the Libyan National Armed Forces (LNA) in early March 2015 led to a further escalation in the civil war. Both sides intensified their airstrikes. Following the escalation of the air war, both alliances met in Morocco to negotiate a peace treaty and a new joint government. Morocco's Islamist-secular coalition government supports the peace process.

After the peace talks, the government applied to the UN to be allowed to buy 150 tanks, 150 infantry fighting vehicles, 10,000 grenade launchers, 1,000 sniper rifles, 8 attack helicopters, 6 combat aircraft, 4 bombers, and several tens of thousands of assault rifles along with ammunition to deal with the "IS" threat. In early March, "IS" had killed eleven Libyan guards and kidnapped nine foreign workers in an attack on an oil field. The request was nevertheless rejected. The two governments are to reach an agreement first before the arms embargo is lifted, he said. Suppliers of the war materials are said to be Ukraine, the Czech Republic and Serbia.

Between February and March 2015, an exodus of Egyptian migrant workers from Libya began. By that time, some 900,000 Egyptian nationals were working in Libya. Many of them then found themselves on the run.

In mid-March 2015, heavy fighting broke out between "Dawn" and "IS" around the port city of Sirte. In February and March, "IS" had continuously expanded its presence around Sirte. According to HRW, illegal cluster bombs were used in the bombardment of Sirte and Ben Jawad. In mid-March, the "IS" offshoot carried out attacks in Tripoli and on barracks in Misrata in "retaliation."

On March 16, 2015, EU foreign ministers discussed a possible new military operation in Libya. In the meantime, "Dawn" is said to be leading around 40,000 fighters into the field.

On March 17, 2015, "Dawn" announced that the leader of Ansar al-Sharia (Tunisia) Abu Zakariya al-Tunisi had been killed in the fighting around Sirte. This was later confirmed by "IS" Internet sites. Al-Tunisi was allegedly responsible for the murders of the two Tunisian politicians Chokri Belaïd and Mohamed Brahmi.

On March 18, 2015, the government of Tunisia announced that flights between Tunisia and Tripoli and Misrata were once again permitted. Tunisia had previously sent a consul to Tripoli. The first flight was scheduled to take place on March 19, 2015, between Sfax and Mitiga International Airport.

On the same day, the Tripoli-based National Oil Corporation announced that it would no longer accept any instructions from either government. It was "neutral" and there for the Libyans, not to fuel the war. However, the government no longer recognizes the Tripoli-based NOC's board of directors; it appointed its own board and declared business with Tripoli NOC illegal. However, the Tripoli-based official central bank of Libya (which is also recognized by the international community), through which business with the NOC was previously conducted, does not recognize this board, which is based in the destroyed city of Benghazi. However, the government in al-Baida is planning to organize its own central bank and has already appointed its own board chairman for the central bank, who again is not recognized by the Tripoli-based national bank. This entire unclear and completely contradictory legal situation is likely to contribute to Libya's economic decline.

Haftar ordered a massive bombardment of the airport at dawn on March 19, 2015. UNSMIL condemned the attack. New peace talks were actually scheduled to take place in Morocco on March 19, 2015. This was postponed because the counter-government delegation was delayed in traveling to Morocco due to the government's airstrikes.

On this day, when the final peace talks were supposed to be concluded, fighting was reported from various parts of the country. Dawn continues to fight against the "IS" offshoots in Sirte. In the west, there was fighting around az-Zawiya between "Dawn" and the Sintan brigades. In Fessan near the village of Brak, Haftar's forces reported capturing some T-55 and Grad rocket launchers from "Dawn."

March 2015: Second Battle for Tripoli

On Friday, March 20, 2015, Libyan forces launched a massive offensive on Tripoli. The offensive began almost simultaneously as delegations were meeting in Morocco for peace talks. The forces managed to advance as far as al-'Azīziyah. Haftar's press office announced "within hours the liberation of Tripoli." After "Dawn" moved troops from Sirte to Tripoli, this offensive was repulsed. The troops ordered to Tripoli had been fighting "IS" there. UN Special Envoy Bernardino Leon condemned the attacks. He said they were activities that were "unacceptable" to the international community. Subsequently, the Libyan Air Force bombed Tripoli and Zuwara airfield several times. This killed an important leader of Fadschr Libya.

In the following weeks, fighting was concentrated in the south of Tripoli, without either side being able to achieve a decisive military breakthrough. The IS offshoots again carried out various attacks on embassies in Tripoli during this time. Starting on April 13, 2015, new peace talks were held in Algeria. Prior to this, the prime minister of the counter-government, al-Hassi, was dismissed. He was accused of being too close to radical Islamist groups.

After the government in Tobruk broke off talks in March 2015, the Council of Deputies voted 64 to 12 in favor of new peace talks.

April/May 2015: Peace talks and refugee tragedies

In April 2015, serious refugee tragedies occurred off the coasts of Libya, resulting in hundreds of deaths. With the mediation of the United Nations, new peace talks were held between the two opposing camps. Further, the powerful independent warlords remain an obstacle to an agreement. On May 11, 2015, the government's air force bombed a Turkish freighter off Libya's east coast. While the Turkish government stated that the ship was en route to Tobruk and was carrying plasterboard, the Libyan government stated that the ship was en route to "IS"-occupied [Darna]. The Turkish government condemned the attack.

December 2015: Renewed peace negotiations

In December, two different peace agreements and two different transitional governments were being worked on. While the international community, supported by Libyan actors, prefers its own peace plan, key stakeholders in Libya are seeking their own peace plan and transitional government.

On December 17, 2015, representatives of the two rival governments signed an agreement in the Moroccan city of Skhirat, drafted with the support of the United Nations, to end the conflict. It provides for the formation of a presidential transitional council to ensure the establishment of a unity government under Fayiz as-Saraj within 30 days. In January 2016, however, the parliament in Tobruk rejected a clause in the unification treaty that would have stripped Haftar, the army commander, of his power and refused to approve the unity government.

September 2016

In September 2016, General Haftar's forces captured the four main oil terminals in Libya: Suwaitina, Brega, Ras Lanuf, and Al-Sedra. However, by March 2017, the terminals were stormed and captured by Benghazi brigades. The government from Tripoli under Serraj had also repeatedly announced its intention to capture the important oil terminals.

December 2016: Recapture of Sirte

On December 5, 2016, militias loyal to the government announced the recapture of Sirte from IS. Fighting for the city, which had been in the hands of IS since 2015 and whose domain had expanded to up to 300 kilometers along the coast at its peak, had dragged on for months. The recapture by the internationally recognized government in Tripoli was supported by U.S. air strikes.

End of December 2017: Expiry of the peace agreement

On December 17, 2017, Chalifa Haftar announced on Libya-Alhadath radio that he would not seek an extension and would "follow the will of the people." This was followed by pro-Haftar demonstrations in Tripoli, Benghazi, and al-Chums.

February/March 2019

Khalifa Haftar's forces took over the large Sharara and Feel oil fields in the Murzuk basin in early 2019, with a production capacity of around 430,000 barrels per day. Previously, these had been occupied in December 2018 by members of the Petroleum Facilities Guard and members of the Fezzan Rage movement to protest the neglect of the southern Fessan region.

April/May 2019: Attempt march on Tripoli

On April 4, General Chalifa Haftar announced an offensive on the Libyan capital of Tripoli. After taking a checkpoint south of Tripoli without a fight, the LNA moved into position 27 kilometers south of the capital. Press research later identified supply flights by Ilyushin Il-76 transport aircraft operated by the "Reem Travel" company, which has owners in the United Arab Emirates and Kazakhstan, apparently flying at the time to military bases under Haftar's control with stopovers in Israel, Egypt, and Jordan. Over Libya, the pilots apparently turned off their transponders, but Haftar's fighters had posted videos online documenting the unloading of the planes at one of his bases. Analysts saw this as evidence of foreign support for the warlord and a sign of an impending proxy war similar to the one in Yemen.

On April 7, Chalifa Haftar's apparent intended coup d'état takeover of the capital failed, and fighting broke out around the capital between militias of the Government of National Accord (GNA) and Haftar's LNA militias. The United States and India announced the withdrawal of troop contingents from Tripoli. Russian Federation prevented a UN resolution from being passed in the UN Security Council on April 7 that would have called on Haftar's attacking forces to end the offensive. Russia, conversely, proposed its own resolution that also called on the defenders to stop fighting. Haftar's forces bombed Mitiga Airport on April 8.

By April 20, Haftar's LNA forces had unsuccessfully attempted to overcome the GNA's defenses in southern Tripoli. Targets in Tripoli were repeatedly attacked from the air. According to eyewitnesses, missiles hit a GNA army camp in the southern district of Sabaa on April 20. So far, 227 people have been killed and 1,128 others wounded, according to WHO. On the night of April 27-28, Haftar again let fly bombardments on Tripoli. The number of people killed increased to 400 by a month after the offensive began, with no significant change in the situation; instead, there was destruction in southern Tripoli and 50,000 refugees.

On May 19, militias, who claim to be part of Haftar's LNA, occupied the control station for Tripoli's water supply through the Great Man Made River project and forced the staff to shut off the supply. After two days, supplies were restored; it remained unclear who was responsible for the raid.

Further development in 2019

On June 27, 2019, GNA forces reported they had captured the city of Gharyan. In early July, an airstrike struck a refugee internment camp in Tagiura, killing at least 53 people. Both civil war parties blamed each other. A condemnation of the attack in the UN Security Council failed due to U.S. opposition.

In November, Libyan counterfeit money was seized in two containers, spread over 56 cubic meters. The Times of Malta cited a Russian printing house as the source.

On November 24, a U.S. delegation met with Khalifa Haftar in an effort to bring an end to the offensive. Among other things, the U.S. deplored Russian influence "at the expense of the Libyan people."

On December 26, 2019, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan announced that he would send soldiers to Libya. A law to that effect would be submitted to the Turkish parliament in early January 2020. According to Erdoğan, the Libyan unity government had invited the Turkish troops. Turkey and the unity government had previously concluded an agreement on security and military cooperation, as well as an agreement on maritime borders in the Mediterranean Sea, which had met with international criticism.

January 2020: International negotiations to settle the conflict

On January 4, 2020, a drone strike on a military school in Tripoli killed 26 cadets. Haftar's militia captured the Libyan port city of Sirte on January 6, 2020.

After negotiations between Russia and Turkey, Haftar and the unity government agreed on a ceasefire that was to take effect on the morning of January 12, 2020. However, both sides accused each other of violating the ceasefire a few hours after it came into effect.

A week later, five years after the start of the refugee crisis in Europe from 2015, in which Libya is considered a transit country for refugees to Europe, and nine years after the start of the civil war in Libya in February 2011, the parties to the conflict with their supporting states decided in an international conference in Berlin on a ceasefire, an arms embargo and a withdrawal of all foreign combat units.

Spring 2020: violation of the arms embargo and terrain gains by the GNA.

After the supply of weapons to both parties by their respective supporting states continued despite international negotiations, the EU decided to use Operation Irini to monitor compliance with the UN arms embargo by monitoring air and sea routes via satellite and naval forces from April 1.

In April 2020, Khalifa Haftar abrogated a UN agreement reached in December 2015 that confirmed the distribution of power in Libya. That same month, mercenaries and militias of Fayiz as-Saraj captured the coastal city of Sabrata, west of Tripoli.

In May 2020, Libyan counterfeit money worth $1.1 billion was seized in Malta. As in November 2019, when a similar incident occurred in Malta, Russia was named as the sender of the money.

On May 18, Haftar's LNA forces lost their main base of the offensive, Al-Watiya airbase. Turkish support, primarily in the form of drones, was seen as crucial to the Government of National Accord's (GNA) terrain gains. In December 2019, for example, Turkey had begun deploying Baykar Technologies drones, which had previously been used against the PYD in Syria, to Libya. In the process, the TB2 pattern was used to attack the Libyan National Army (LNA) and its supply lines. The Russian Pantsir S-1 air defense systems supplied to the LNA by the United Arab Emirates proved insufficient in the fight against the drones.

After a series of defeats in the battle for Tripoli, Haftar's fighters withdrew from Tarhuna, their last base in the west of the country, on June 5, 2020. Within days, Haftar's forces had lost terrain that had previously been fought over for 14 months. The remaining local militias, who had previously allied with Haftar, fled after a brief skirmish with GNA forces. On Sirte, the refuge of Haftar and his remaining fighting units, hostile GNA fighters began an advance in June 2020. Ghassan Salamé, the head of the United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL), who resigned in March 2020, called the summer 2020 war the largest drone war of that time.

Summer and fall 2020: ceasefire, demonstrations, resignations, dismissals and ceasefire

On August 21, 2020, the GNA and LNA issued separate statements announcing an immediate cease-fire. Two days later, demonstrations began in several Libyan cities, initially targeting deficiencies in electricity and water supplies, crumbling infrastructure, and widespread corruption. Some demonstrators also demanded constitutional elections and a withdrawal from power of the current ruling classes. Protesters gathered in Tripoli's "Martyrs' Square" for several days before demonstrations spread to Misrata and az-Zawiya. The GNA government responded by imposing a curfew, citing COVID-19. Pro-government militias also fired live ammunition at protesters. According to Amnesty International, at least six people were abducted by the pro-government al-Nawasi militia. Libya's head of government al-Sarraj then appointed a new defense minister and a new army chief. The dismissed defense minister, Bashagha, who is supported by militias from Misrata, then traveled to Turkey, which supports both the militias in Tripoli and those in Misrata, for talks. A UN special envoy traveled to Egypt, which supports General Haftar, for talks

At a demonstration on August 23, the pro-government al-Nawazi militia arrested journalist Sami al-Sharif, who reported for the al-Jawhara radio station. The Committee to Protect Journalists and a Libyan civil rights organization demanded his immediate release. The al-Nawazi militia is part of a militia cartel that has controlled large parts of Tripoli since 2017, enriching itself from kidnappings and forged letters of credit, among other activities. It came to power with the tacit acquiescence of UNSMIL and various Western embassies, which hoped for its replacement by a regular presidential guard, but that did not materialize.

In September, demonstrations against the miserable living conditions of the Libyan population also took place in Benghazi and el Merdj in General Haftar's sphere of influence. Forces subordinate to Haftar opened fire on demonstrators in el Merdj. The government of Abdullah Thennis, which was loyal to Haftar, then resigned.

In October 2020, the two parties to the conflict agreed on a ceasefire, which stipulates that all foreign mercenaries will be withdrawn from the country within three months and all remaining combat groups will be integrated into the country's police and army. After al-Sarraji subsequently announced his resignation, he withdrew the announcement for the time being on the advice of German Foreign Minister Heiko Maas to avoid a "political vacuum."

February and June 2021: New attempt at elections and government formation as well as further international negotiations

On Feb. 5, 2021, representatives of rival power groups elected a new transitional government under UN supervision in Switzerland under Prime Minister Abdul Hamid Dbeiba, a businessman who is assisted by a three-member presidency. The interim government was supported by both Fayiz as-Saraj and Aguila Saleh Issa, but the Eastern Libya Council of Deputies made its support conditional on a positive vote by parliament. It is to prepare for elections set for Dec. 24, 2021.

In June 2021, government representatives from Russia, Turkey, Egypt, and 13 other states pledged at a Libya conference in Berlin to immediately withdraw all non-Libyan combatants from Libya.

Pro-Haftar demonstrators

International reactions

The peace plan of the UN and the Maghreb states

Attempts at mediation under the leadership of United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon had already been underway since the outbreak of the conflict in summer 2014. Initial peace talks failed in October 2014. Since February 2015, there have been new negotiations under the leadership of the UN to achieve a unity government consisting of "Amaliya al-Karamah" and "Fajr Libia. Egypt's attempt to obtain an end or a relaxation of the arms embargo by the UN and thus to be allowed to supply and militarily support the Thennis government was rejected on February 19, 2015 by the UN Security Council, which insists on a political dialogue and a subsequent unity government of both sides. This desired unity government is intended to stabilize the country, end the civil war, and thus enable a lasting, sustainable success over "IS." The formation of a unity government from both alliances is being sought by the U.S., the U.K., Germany, France, Italy and Spain. This plan is also supported by Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, as well as the Arab Maghreb Union. In Tunisia and Morocco, secular and Islamist parties jointly govern the country in coalition governments; Algeria has been led by an alliance of two secular parties since 2012. Tunisia's Foreign Minister Taieb Baccouche and Algeria's Foreign Minister Ramtane Lamamra told a joint press conference on March 12, 2015, that they would focus on how to stop the war, not which of the two alliances to support. One has the "moral responsibility" to help overcome the crisis, he said. We support the state of Libya, not its governments.

African Union

The African Union Peace and Security Council established an International Contact Group on Libya (ICG-L) in September 2014 to discuss the situation in Libya.

For Africa, the conflict has immediate consequences. According to the UN, more and more weapons are flowing from Libya to Algeria, Tunisia, Mali and Egypt, increasing the clout of terrorist groups there.

European Union

The European Union firmly supports the UN peace talks. It hopes that the dialogue will be successful, otherwise it fears chaotic conditions with dramatic consequences for Europe. Without a unified government, the country would be in danger of falling into a vacuum in which groups such as "IS" would find it easy to take control of parts of the country. A unity government would have the full support of the EU in the fight against "IS".

Treatment of an alleged war criminal in Germany

According to the Süddeutsche Zeitung, the Libyan militia leader Abderrahim al-Kani, who is accused by the GNA government of crimes against humanity, war crimes and other serious human rights violations, received medical treatment in Germany for years without being bothered. Together with four of his brothers, he had built up and commanded a private army in the city of Tarhuna. They are accused of murders, torture and kidnappings of the civilian population of the town, which is 65 kilometers from Tripoli. Militia troops are also alleged to have shelled residential areas during attacks on the capital and other towns. As recently as 2020, the man had sought treatment at Bonn University Hospital. The Federal Prosecutor General and the Federal Criminal Police Office were informed by the International Criminal Court both of his stay in Germany and of the charges against him.

Humanitarian consequences

Both alliances are accused of serious human rights violations against political opponents and civilians. The human rights situation in the areas controlled by the terrorist organization "IS" has been described as far worse.

As of February 2015, there were 394,000 internally displaced persons as a result of the armed conflict. 37,000 refugees from other countries who were in Libya needed assistance.

In 2017, detention without legal grounds was the subject of an UNSMIL workshop. An official spokesperson from Bani Walid put the number of those detained without trial at 7,000 to 8,000 across the country. This is said to include some 900 women in Ruhaimi prison in Ain Zara, most of them former members of the Revolutionary Guard. In addition, there are prisoners of armed gangs in private prisons.

Activity of civil and human rights organizations

Various NGOs are working to contain the war, assist its victims, and establish the rule of law. OHCHR lists reports in 2020 from 13 human rights organizations concerned with Libya and one national human rights association. For example, the Libyan Women's Platform for Peace is committed to including Libyan women in efforts to achieve peace. The Libya Center for Freedom of Press is committed to helping imprisoned and abducted journalists. Since 2016, the Libya Platform, in collaboration with the Cairo Institute for Human Rights Studies (CIHRS), has been committed to strengthening civil rights organizations, democratic elections, prosecution of war crimes, and disempowerment of militias.

On November 10, 2020, human rights activist Hanan al-Barassi, who called herself the "Mother of Libya," was assassinated in Benghazi. Hanan al-Barassi, 46, a lawyer from Benghazi, was an activist for human rights in her homeland. She was not afraid to take on the powerful in the state, the officers of the Libyan National Army, the ruler of Benghazi and the east of the country, warlord Khalifa Haftar, and his followers.

See also

• Arab Spring
• Civil war in Syria
• Military intervention in Yemen 2015

Footnotes