Knowledge of Results: feedback about performance in learning and behavior

Key characteristics

KR can take many forms: a simple indication of correct/incorrect, a numeric score, a descriptive critique, or a demonstrable consequence. It may be immediate or delayed, and may come from an external source (teacher, device) or be derived internally by the performer. The information focuses on outcomes rather than the specific processes used to obtain them.

How it works

Providing information about results creates a link between action and consequence. This connection helps the learner adjust responses, test hypotheses about strategies, and refine motor patterns. In some cases KR is purely informational; in others it overlaps with reinforcement because a favourable result can increase the probability of repeating a behaviour. The general idea is closely related to the engineering concept of feedback, and to behavioural adjustments in response to consequences that shape behaviour.

Origins and theoretical context

The notion of outcome-based information has roots in early learning theories and in practical training methods. It appears in behaviorist discussions of consequence and in cognitive accounts of error correction and discovery learning. KR is studied in fields ranging from experimental psychology to motor control and education. It is sometimes discussed alongside ideas such as operant conditioning, and it can be compared to non-biological control systems like the Watt governor as an analogy for corrective feedback.

Applications and examples

Knowledge of results is used widely: teachers give test scores and corrective comments; coaches point out a missed foot placement; therapists report progress measures to clients; software shows success statistics after a task. In rehabilitation and motor learning, carefully timed KR accelerates skill retention. In education, KR combined with formative comments helps learners identify specific gaps that need attention.

Distinctions and practical points

• KR versus reinforcement: KR supplies information about outcome; reinforcement alters the likelihood of a response through pleasant or unpleasant consequences.
• KR versus intrinsic feedback: Intrinsic feedback arises from sensory consequences of an action; KR is extrinsic information added by others or instruments.
• Immediate versus delayed KR: Immediate KR aids performance gains but delayed or summary KR can enhance long-term learning in some tasks.
• KCR: The term "knowledge of correct results" implies a single correct outcome, which fits some tasks but not open-ended or creative activities.

When designing instruction or practice, choose KR that clarifies the goal, is appropriately timed, and encourages the learner to engage in problem solving rather than mere repetition. Thoughtful use of knowledge of results supports efficient learning, sustained improvement, and better transfer of skills across contexts.