Arapaho

The Arapaho [əˈræpəˌhəʊ -] or Arapahoe are an Indian people of North America and, like their closest allies - the Cheyenne - belonged as nomadic Plains Indians to the cultural area of the prairies and plains. Moreover, both peoples were the dominant military as well as political power of the Central Plains and the Front Range in western Nebraska and Kansas, southeastern Wyoming, and eastern Colorado from 1750 onward.

Historically, they were close allies of the Cheyenne and later of their former enemies, the Lakota Sioux, Comanche, Kiowa, and Plains Apache. Their traditional enemies included the Shoshone, Ute, Osage, and Pawnee. The related Gros Ventre were also often stubbornly opposed, as they had each joined powerful tribal alliances hostile to the Arapaho for their protection-first as a member of the Blackfoot Confederacy (from about 1793 to 1861) and then as a member of the Cree-Assiniboine Alliance (Nehiyaw-Pwat).

Originally, the Arapaho consisted of five independent dialect as well as tribal groups living along the Red River of the North in northern Minnesota and west of the Great Lakes in the Northeast Woodlands Cultural Area, but they, along with the Cheyenne, were forced to move west and southwest to escape pressure from the rifle-armed and militarily superior Ojibwe and Assiniboine. In this migration, the northernmost tribal group remained in northern Montana and southern Manitoba and Saskatchewan in the early 1800s, while the four remaining tribal groups moved further south and southwest onto the Central Plains and into the Front Range. By 1750, two separate tribes had developed: the Gros Ventre, who remained in the north on the Northern Plains, and the Arapaho, who had moved south and southwest.

Since 1878, the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone Tribe on the Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming and are recognized as the Arapaho Tribe of the Wind River Reservation; the Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma and form the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes, also federally recognized.

The Arapaho tried to stay out of wars with the United States but became victims of the Sand Creek Massacre in 1864, when Colonel Chivington wiped out a Cheyenne and Arapaho camp that was under the protection of the U.S. government. The survivors fled to Wyoming and petitioned the Shoshone for land; others sought revenge and participated in the so-called Red Cloud War of 1866 to 1868 (also known as the Bozeman Trail or Powder River War) alongside the Northern Cheyenne and Lakota, which provisionally ended in complete victory for the combined tribes. Along with (mostly) Northern Cheyenne and Lakota, some Arapaho fought the 7th U.S. Cavalry Regiment under George A. Custer at the Battle of the Little Bighorn River in 1876.

Arapaho-Atsina (Gros Ventre) dialect and tribal groups.

As noted earlier, there were originally five independent dialect and tribal groups that evolved into two separate tribes, even belonging to hostile tribal alliances, during the migration westward and southward onto the Plains between 1700 and 1750: The northernmost dialect and tribal group remained on the northern Plains and evolved into the Atsina (Gros Ventre), while the four remaining dialect and tribal groups moved farther south and southwest onto the Central Plains and into the Front Range, where they evolved into the Arapaho.

Each tribal group spoke its own dialect (or Arapaho language), some of which deviated from the actual Arapaho in various forms and strengths - but all dialects or Arapaho languages (Arapaho-Atsina) were mutually intelligible. This also led to the fact that the individual tribal groups could preserve their own identity and language for a long time, even if they were to reorganize themselves politically later. The dialects of the Haa'ninin (Atsina / Gros Ventre), Beesowuunenno' and Hinono'eino (actual Arapaho) were closely related to each other, while the dialects of the Nanwacinaha'ana and Hánahawuuena diverged the most. According to Arapaho elders, however, the Hánahawuuena dialect was the most difficult to understand.

Anthropologist Alfred Kroeber identified these five dialect and tribal groups as follows (from south to north):

• Nanwacinaha'ana, Nawathi'neha ("southern/southern living people") or Nanwuine'nan / Náwunena, Noowothiineheeno' / Noowunenno ("southern people"), their now extinct Nawathinehena language or dialect was one of the most divergent dialects - they evolved into the later Southern Arapaho.
• Hánahawuuena, Hananaxawuune'nan, or Aanû'nhawa ("rock people," "rock people," perhaps referring to the Rocky Mountains), their tribal lands bordered those of the Nanwacinaha'ana to the north, they spoke the Ha'anahawunena language or dialect, now also extinct, and later evolved into the Northern Arapaho.
• Hinono'eino, Hinanae'inan, or Inuna-Ina (originally "true Arapaho" or "actual Arapaho," later transferred to all Arapaho with the meaning as "our people") or actual Arapaho, spoke Hinónoʼeitíít / Heenetiit or actual Arapaho language of the Arapaho languages - later evolved into the nucleus of the Northern Arapaho and were considered the mother tribe among the other Arapaho.
• Beesowuunenno, Baasanwuune'nan, or Bäsawunena ("people with large dwellings" or "wigwam/grass hut people"), lived further north of the Hinono'eino, their war parties using similar dwellings to the wigwam similar to the Algonkin tribes around the Great Lakes along the way, according to tradition they left their original homeland later than the other Arapaho groups (some Arapaho and linguists therefore claim that their name means "people of the Great Lakes" or "people of the Great Water", but no generally accepted translation is known today), spoke the now also extinct language or dialect Besawunena, or "Besawunena". dialect Besawunena or Beesoowuuyeitiit of the Arapaho languages - most joined the Northern Arapaho, some the Southern Arapaho as well as the Gros Ventre (Atsina).
• Haa'ninin, A'aninin, Ahahnelin, or A'ani ("people of the white clay(earth)" or "lime people"), were the northernmost dialect and tribal group, after separation from the other four Arapaho tribal groups, they were contemptuously referred to by the latter as Hitouunenno, Hitúnĕna, or Hittiuenina ("beggars," literally "freeloaders")-as the Arapaho regarded the Haa'ninin as inferior or inferior; as temporary allies of the hostile Blackfoot Confederacy (circa 1793-1861), they were able to retain their ethnic independence and evolved into the later Gros Ventre or Atsina (the Blackfoot referred to the Haa'ninin as "Atsíína" - "like a Cree, i.e., enemy", also as "a Cree").i.e. enemy", also rendered as "Brave People" or as "Piik-siik-sii-naa" - "Snakes, i.e. enemies"), speaking the now almost extinct Gros Ventre or Ananin/Ahahnelin language or dialect, which the Arapaho contemptuously referred to as Hitouuyeitiit ("Language of the Beggars or parasites"); there is evidence that the southern Haa'ninin tribal group, the Staetan Band, along with bands of the later Northern Arapaho, spoke the Besawunena language or dialect.

Development to the Gros Ventre (Atsina) and Arapaho

At one time, each of the five dialect and tribal groups had its own chief; the four tribal groups living south of the Haa'ninin (Gros Ventre / Atsina) often shared the resources of their respective tribal lands and camped together; for at least the last 150 years, the Beesowuunenno' migrated and camped among the other three independent tribal groups-as well as visited among themselves, so that by the end of the 18th century, the once four separate tribal groups (Nanwacinaha'ana, Hánahawuuena, Hinono'eino, and Beesowuunenno') had merged to form the Arapaho (Hinnahawuuena). The exact date and the course of this ethnogenesis, however, is not known. The fact that there were rivals in the past is not known. That there were rivalries among the tribal groups and a strong consciousness of their own identity is confirmed by the oral tradition of the Arapaho elders, who report that the Hinono'eino once had a strong identity, that at one time the Hinono'eino ("true Arapaho") and Beesowuunenno' ("Big Lodge People" or "Brush-Hut/Shelter People") fought for possession of the tribal symbols sacred to all Arapaho - the sacred pipe and the sacred lance, both traditionally kept by the Beesowuunenno'.

Division into Northern and Southern Arapaho

At the time of regular contact with American traders, hunters, and government officials in the early 1800s, the Hinono'eino (all Arapaho tribal groups south of the Haa'ninin) - often accompanied by the Cheyenne - claimed and traversed large areas of the Great Plains; their tribal territories extended from northern New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Kansas northward to Wyoming (called Hetanévo'ēno - "place / land of the Arapaho" by the Cheyenne) and South Dakota (called Ho'óhomo'éno - "land of the Sioux" by the Cheyenne), mostly roaming the western areas of the Central Plains and the Front Range (3ooxone' noho'oooyoo' - "the hammer [type] mountains"), while the Cheyenne mostly used the eastern areas.

As great traders, the Cheyenne and Arapaho initiated the establishment of Bent's Fort trading post on the Upper Arkansas River (hoxeenii-niicie?/hoheenii-niicie? - "Flint River") in 1833 to cut out other tribes as middlemen and be able to trade directly with American traders for their goods. Therefore, when many southern bands of Arapaho and Cheyenne began to push further south to the Arkansas River between 1815 and 1840, this brought them into a rapidly escalating conflict with the bands of Comanche, who politically dominated the Southern Plains as a military as well as trading power, and the Kiowa and Plains Apache - since at that time large areas north of the Arkansas River across the Smoky Hill River (ca. 1750 - early 19th century known as the River of the Padoucas/Comanches) to the North Platte River (known as the Padouca/Comanche Fork until 1805) belonged to the Comancheria, the sphere of power of this tribal alliance. To control trade with Bent's Fort and secure access, by force if necessary, to Pueblo and Mexican markets in New Mexico and to the vast bison herds and mustang herds of the Southern Plains of Texas, New Mexico, and Oklahoma, the allied Arapaho and Cheyenne (contrary to the Plains war tactics of action (raid) and reaction (retaliation) with mostly few casualties) waged a risky and brutal war against the Southern tribes, accepting high own casualties, in order to kill as many enemy warriors as possible. The Comanche, Kiowa and Plains Apache, who were also weakened by smallpox (1817 and 1848), realized after several extremely brutal and partly loss-making conflicts - in which they lost far more than 1,000 horses several times - that the Cheyenne and Arapaho wanted to make it clear that they intended not to give up their newly won territories in Colorado and Kansas as well as parts of New Mexico and Oklahoma. Therefore, in 1840, the two depleted tribal alliances - with the mediation of the Kiowa and Kiowa Apache (Plains Apache), who were related to the Arapaho by marriage - formed a strong military alliance, sealed by the surrender of thousands of horses by the Comanche, Kiowa and Plains Apache to the militarily victorious Cheyenne and Arapaho. Through this, these tribal groups, now called the Southern Cheyenne and Southern Arapaho, soon established themselves as successful traders of the Santa Fe Trail.

The northern bands of Arapaho - who were now also mostly known as Northern Arapaho - were more conservative in contrast to their southern kin and mostly tried to stay away from the whites and live autonomously, so moved further north into the Powder River (ce'i3ee-niicie - "powder river") and Yellowstone River (bees-niicie - "big river") areas north of the Platte River; to trade, they came to Fort Laramie (wo'teen-no'oowu' - "black (soldiers') house," wo'teen-nih'oo3ou-no'oowu' - "black (people's) house"), a trading post (later Army fort) built in 1834 at the confluence of the Laramie River and the North Platte River (bei'i'ei-niicie - "shell river") in southeastern Wyoming.

By 1840, the southern and northern bands had developed separate identities as the Southern Arapaho and the Northern Arapaho, respectively, and the boundary of the tribal territories was the South Platte River in Colorado - this was also the site of a traditional gathering place for both Arapaho tribal groups in the area of the present-day city of Denver (niinenii-niicie - "tallow river"), as well as an important trading post for neighboring tribes. (See also: Southern and Northern Cheyenne):

• Northern Arapaho or Northern Arapaho: called themselves Nank'haanseine'nan ("Desert Mugwort People") or Nookhose'iinenno ("White Sage People") and were called Bo'ooceinenno' or Baachinena ("Silky Dogwood People") by the Southern Arapaho; the Kiowa also called them Tägyäko ("Desert Mugwort People"), a translation of their proper name. Originally comprising only the historic Hinono'eino ("true/actual Arapaho") tribal groups, they later absorbed two other tribal groups as well - the Hánahawuuena and Beesowuunenno'; there are still about 50 tribal members among the Northern Arapaho with Beesowuunenno' ancestry today. They are today the keepers of the sacred tribal symbols (which originally belonged to the Beesowuunenno') and are considered by all Arapaho bands to be the nucleus or mother tribe of all Arapaho. Therefore, in the Plains Indian Sign Language, they are also identified with the sign for "Mother People."
• Southern Arapaho or Southern Arapaho: called themselves Náwunena or Noowunenno ("Southern People"), were therefore also called by the Northern Arapaho as Nawathi'neha ("people living south/southward"); the Kiowa called them Ähayädal (plural name for the wild plum). In sign language, the Southern Arapaho were identified by rubbing the index finger along the side of the nose. Into them merged the historic Nanwacinaha'ana / Noowothiineheeno' ("Southern People") tribal group and some of the Beesowuunenno'. A large Southern Arapaho band of circa 250 moved further south onto the southern Plains of Texas, joined the once-hostile Comanche there, and became part of the Comanche as the Saria Tʉhka / Sata Teichas Band ("Dog Eaters"). (This was not unusual, often smaller and politically-militarily weaker bands joined neighboring more powerful peoples: the Comanche were also joined by bands of the Shoshone and Plains Apache (Kiowa Apache)).

By the treaties of Fort Laramie of 1851 and 1868 the separation in Northern Arapaho (Northern Arapaho) and Southern Arapaho (Southern Arapaho) was officially recognized and fixed by the USA, so that the two form today two on federal level recognized tribes (so-called federally recognized tribes).

Language

The Arapaho and the Gros Ventre, who are closely related to them, originally spoke five different Arapaho idioms, each of which can be assigned to the individual tribal groups. The Arapaho dialects (ISO 639-2 language code: arp) belong to the Algonkin language family along with Cheyenne (Tsêhesenêstsestôtse) and Blackfoot (Ni'tsiitapipo'ahsin). However, this Plains Algonkin regional group is defined more culturally and geographically than by language, as the differences between the languages listed here were so stark that the three groups could not communicate with each other, but communicated through sign language on the Plains. Today, Tsêhesenêstsestôtse (Cheyenne) is still spoken by about 1700 Cheyenne in the states of Montana and Oklahoma in the USA.