Apocrypha: books outside or variably included in Biblical canons

Contents and characteristics

Collections labelled "Apocrypha" vary by tradition but commonly include books that appeared in the Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures (the Septuagint) or in early Christian literature. Typical examples are:

• Tobit
• Judith
• Wisdom of Solomon
• Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)
• Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah
• 1 and 2 Maccabees
• Deuterocanonical additions to Esther and Daniel

These works include a mix of genres—historical tales, wisdom literature, religious exhortation, and additions to canonical narratives. Some were originally composed in Greek, others in Hebrew or Aramaic, and their provenance and date of composition vary widely. Because of this diversity, they are grouped together more because of shared canonical ambiguity than because they form a single literary corpus.

History of canonical status

The status of these books developed over several centuries. Many were included in the Septuagint, which was widely used in the early Church. During debates over the Biblical canon in late antiquity and the medieval period, different communities drew different boundaries. The Roman Catholic Church adopted a set of books later termed "deuterocanonical" (literally "belonging to the second canon") and affirmed their status at the Council of Trent in the 16th century. Protestant reformers in the 16th century generally rejected these books as canonical and often called them the "Apocrypha," placing them outside the Hebrew Bible proper. Some translations, such as early editions of the King James Version, printed the Apocrypha in a separate section. Readers can also encounter references to related works in collections of intertestamental literature and in extended editions of the Bible.

Uses and significance

Whether viewed as scripture, useful reading, or historically interesting, the apocryphal books have influenced theology, liturgy, art, and devotional practice. In traditions that accept them, passages from these books appear in lectionaries, devotional writings, and church teaching. Scholars study them to gain insight into religious ideas and social contexts in the centuries between the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. Some books also preserve traditions and historical memories—such as the Maccabean revolt—that are important for understanding Jewish history.

Distinctions and related categories

The vocabulary around these writings can be confusing. Roman Catholics commonly use the term deuterocanonical to describe books included in their Old Testament that are not in the Hebrew Bible. Many Protestants use the term "Apocrypha" to describe the same set of books or to denote writings they consider noncanonical. Separate from both is the category called the pseudepigrapha: a broader set of ancient Jewish and Christian writings falsely attributed to biblical figures and generally excluded from all major canons. Eastern Orthodox communions recognize a slightly different group of additional books, and the exact contents of what is called "Apocrypha" therefore vary between traditions.

Notable facts and further reading

Some specific points that often arise in discussions of these texts: their language of composition (Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek) influenced whether Jewish communities accepted them; their frequent presence in the Septuagint made them familiar to Greek-speaking Christians; and ecclesiastical decisions in the Reformation era led to persistent denominational differences. For more detailed historical or textual study, consult editions and commentaries that collect the apocryphal and deuterocanonical books, or scholarly introductions to the intertestamental period. See also references to 2 Esdras and related writings, and surveys of the scriptural traditions. For denominational explanations consult resources on the Old Testament canon or the histories of the Hebrew (Hebrew) and Greek (Greek) scriptural traditions.