History of India

The history of India covers the developments in the Indian subcontinent from prehistory to 1947 and the development of the Republic of India before its creation in 1947 to the present. The oldest known civilization on the Indian subcontinent and one of the oldest advanced civilizations in the world, is the Indus culture. Its history dates back at least 5000 years. Beginning around 1500 BC, Aryan tribes are believed to have migrated from the north and produced the Vedic culture.

From the 6th century B.C. onwards, Buddhism developed, which for more than 1000 years was one of India's most authoritative intellectual currents alongside Hinduism. In the 4th century BC, the Maurya Empire emerged, which rose to become India's first great empire and reached its greatest expansion under Emperor Ashoka. In the 3rd century BC, Prakrit literature and Tamil Sangam literature flourished in southern India. In the 4th century AD, a great empire emerged in northern India under the rule of the Guptas, as well as the Tamil Chola Empire in the south.

Arab conquest campaigns in the 8th century brought Islam to northwest India. When the Arabs tried to penetrate into Gujarat and beyond, they were defeated by the Indian king Vikramaditya II of the western Chalukya dynasty. From the 8th century to the 10th century, the three dynasties of Rashtrakuta, Pala and Pratihara ruled over a large part of India and fought among themselves for supremacy in northern India. In southern India, the Chola dynasty and the Chalukya dynasty ruled from the 10th century to the 12th century. Southern India was ruled by the Hindu Vijayanagar Empire from the 14th century to the 16th century. During the Mughal dynasty, the influences of Persian culture played a major role. In the late 17th century, the Hindu Maratha Empire was established, which overran the Mughal Empire in the 18th century and conquered much of northern India. By the 19th century, Britain had complete political control over all Indian territories.

Resistance to British colonial rule, especially under Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, led to independence in 1947. The subcontinent was divided into two states, the secular (Hindu‑) state of India and the smaller Islamic state of Pakistan. After two previous wars with Pakistan, a third war in 1971‑ led to the secession of East Pakistan and the creation of the new state of Bangladesh.

Today, India's fundamental problems are, on the one hand, the ongoing dispute with Pakistan over the region of Kashmir, and, on the other, severe overpopulation, increasing environmental pollution, widespread poverty, and ethnic and religious conflicts between Hindus and Muslims.

Vedic time

The migrating Aryans (from the north) gave birth to the Vedic culture from about 1500 BC, when they intermingled with the native tribes. These migratory movements were very slow. In the Middle Vedic period (c. 1200-900 BC), settlement took place in the Punjab and western Ganges and Yamuna valleys. The Vedic religion, characterized by sacrificial rituals and hymns to the gods, experienced its first heyday. During this phase, for example, the riksamhitas, which are hymns of praise to the gods, came into being. The world of the gods resembled the Indo-European world of the gods. One asks the gods for wealth, gold and cattle. The way of life, which was semi-nomadic in the beginning, transitioned smoothly into sedentarism. The word for Wagentreck (grama), for example, underwent a change of meaning and later meant village.

In the Late Vedic period (c. 900-600 BC), the Aryans settled the eastern Ganges Valley. A phase of urbanization and empire building began. From c. 600 BC there were about sixteen kingdoms, probably as amalgamations of two or more tribes. In this phase many cities developed in which trade was carried on. Tamed elephants were now used in warfare. Rice production was intensified. In the 5th century, King Bimbisara laid the foundation for the future dominant position of the kingdom of Magadha.

In the late Vedic period, the mythological legitimation for the caste system emerged. At the top of the social hierarchy were the Brahmins (scribes, priests), followed by the warriors Kshatriyas and the merchants, craftsmen and farmers Vaishyas. At the bottom of the society were the members of the original population who lived as servants, Shudras. However, it can be assumed that the stratification of society was not yet so pronounced in the Vedic period.

The end of the Vedic period (6th and 5th centuries BC) was a time of upheaval both politically and religiously. In Magadha, two religious founders emerged whose teachings, while sharing similarities with the Vedic belief system, such as the cycle of rebirths (samsara) and the law of action (karma), offered a further development. According to tradition, Mahavira was the last of 24 so-called "ford-preparers" to found Jainism, which goes back to ascetic traditions. Finally, Siddhartha Gautama, also born as a prince of a small principality, taught as Buddha for 40 years the "way of the middle", Buddhism.

Territorial situation in the late Vedic period 1100-500 BC.


Territorial situation in the early Vedic period 1700-1100 BC.


Magadha and other Mahajanapadas in the early post-Vedic period, c. 500 BC.

Indian Middle Ages

An Indian Middle Ages is differently limited by the research. According to A. K. Majumdar, the Indian Middle Ages begin in the middle of the 8th century. According to Hermann Kulke, on the other hand, the Indian Middle Ages encompass the period from the fall of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century to the founding of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206.

Harsha Empire

Between 606 and 647 Harshavardhana reigned in northern India. He is considered one of the last great promoters of Buddhism. His attempt to subjugate central India failed, however: here the Chalukya and Pallava kings alternated.

Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, Pala

From the 8th to 10th centuries, power was shared by the Rashtrakuta in central India (c. 752-973), the Pala in Bengal (c. 750-1161), and the Pratihara (c. 730-1036) in northeastern India. The Pratihara kings are the predecessors of the Rajput princes and, like them, also took up the defence against the Muslim invaders, e.g. Mahmud of Ghazna. All three parties fought constantly over the ancient capital of Harsha, Kannauj on the Ganges, during which time it fell into the hands of the Pratiharas for a long time.

These centuries are considered the Indian Middle Ages. No great power was able to assert itself and military successes did not last. The power of kings was based on the number and reliability of vassals, while their central administrations were weak and often extended only to the perimeter of the capital. Not only vassal kings but also provincial governors had their own army and appointed their own officials. Their office was often passed on, so that new dynasties arose from them. As in the European Middle Ages, the power of kings was only apparent, despite great external successes.

The people of the Indian Middle Ages mostly lived in the countryside. A distinctive feature of Indian empires like that of the Rashtrakuta and Chola was the associated self-sufficient village communities. In the villages and districts, councils of mahattaras (i.e., the taller ones) took care of public works on roads and water reservoirs, the judiciary, and temples. They were not appointed by the dynasty and were independent of the situation at court. If the tax collector came by, they had often already collected the taxes and then delivered them in a lump sum.

The court culture, architecture as well as Hindu philosophy refined themselves on the basis of already existing forms and realizations, brought however little new out, so that one speaks also of a solidification of the social structure and/or society. The landowners now got as much as they could out of the peasants and also created economic monopolies for themselves. In the Indian Middle Ages, for example, the entire village population was often given as a gift when land donations were made instead of fixed salaries due to a lack of money (little cash with a lack of long-distance trade).

Land grants to Brahmins assumed a much larger scale in the 10th and 11th centuries. The kings also hoped that this would weaken the provincial governors or provide them with strong support for themselves.

Buddhism was pushed back further as it relied only on the upper classes. With the declining power of the kings, the maintenance of Buddhist monasteries became too costly for the village communities and here the lack of popular support, where the Brahmins dominated, took its revenge. In addition, parts of his teachings and expressions were integrated into Hinduism by thinkers like Shankara.

Chola

The Chola Empire was one of the most important Indian kingdoms and is considered the most influential Hindu empire to this day. It is attributed to the Tamils. Like the ancient Greeks and Romans, the Tamil Cholas were able to exert far-reaching cultural influence on their neighbours. Their heyday lasted from the 9th to the 13th century. The great conquerors from this dynasty were Rajaraja I (r. 985-1012/14) and his son Rajendra I (1012/14-44). Their main rivals at that time were the aforementioned Chalukya (c. 550-750 and 973-1190) and Pallava (575-897).

In the north, during the heyday of Chola in the 11th century, the Muslims began invading under Mahmud of Ghazna, who defeated the Rajput kings and penetrated as far as Kannauj.