Ancient history — recorded civilizations from the first writing to the early Middle Ages

Why written records matter

The appearance of writing marks the boundary between prehistory and history because it produces first-hand accounts of economic activity, laws, religious practices and political affairs. Writing developed after major social changes associated with the Neolithic revolution, when many groups moved from mobile hunting and gathering to settled farming communities. Some of the earliest secure examples of writing date to around 3300–3200 BCE in the Middle East, and the first large-scale users included the Sumerians and the Ancient Egyptians.

Sources for the period before writing

For the eras that predate writing, researchers rely on material remains — tools, pottery, settlement layers and large-scale constructions — which are the focus of archaeology rather than literary history. Monuments, burial complexes and other durable structures give important clues about social organization and belief systems; these kinds of monuments often survive when written records do not.

When ancient history ends

The end point of ancient history is not the same everywhere. In Europe the transition is typically placed at the start of the Middle Ages, but in other regions the shift from "ancient" to "medieval" or "post-classical" depends on local political and cultural changes, such as the fall of empires, the spread of new religions, or transformations in economic systems.

Common types of early written records

• Administrative and accounting documents
• Legal codes and decrees
• Religious texts and inscriptions
• Literary compositions and royal inscriptions