Surname

The family name is a part of the name of a person. It complements the first name and expresses the affiliation of the name bearer to a family.

As a rule, the expressions surname and surname are used synonymously. In Switzerland, one also says gender name (from family gender).

In contrast to the married name, the original family name acquired by descent is called the maiden name (in the case of married women also maiden name; in Switzerland, maiden name) and expresses the affiliation to the parental family. In many modern naming laws, birth names and married names can be combined in double names (Switzerland: alliance names). Artist's names can also be used as family names without a kinship reference. Contrary to what the expression "birth name" suggests, however, this name can change long after birth. In Germany, the birth name is defined as the name "which is to be entered in the birth certificate of a spouse at the time of the declaration [on the choice of a marriage name] to the registry office" (§ 1355Abs. 5 BGB), whereby it follows from the civil status law that the birth name noted in the birth entry can certainly change (§ 36 para. 1 PStV), namely through adoption, naming or official name change; only in the case of changes due to marriage, the birth name does not change, but a married name is acquired. In Switzerland this birth name is called Ledigname, in Austrian legal terminology it corresponds to the gender name.

The house name (farm name) fulfils a similar function as the family name in rural areas. In everyday language it is usually prefixed to the first name (call name), among others in Hesse, especially in southern Germany and Austria. If the surname is only used in correspondence, it is also called a spelling name. Historically, the woman was still addressed in writing in the 20th century with the first and last name of her spouse.

A person's surname can change in the course of life, for example through marriage, divorce, adoption or an official change of name. Involuntary adaptations are also possible, e.g. the adoption of the name of a new spouse by the premarital children of one of the partners, so that the new family can appear as a single unit in social and official dealings.

Naming is regulated very differently around the world and depends on culture, tradition, social order and origin (such as from nobility). Not all surname systems in Europe and the world employ family names. For example, in the Spanish-speaking world, the two-part surname (apellido, literally "call name") commonly used there is not a surname in the strict sense, because it does not recognize a common surname for members of a family. Instead, this system provides for an individual and invariable ancestral name (patronymic and matronymic) for each person, so that family members bear different surnames. Similar systems prevail in other countries, such as Italy. In this article, the different regional surname systems are dealt with even if, strictly speaking, they are not family names.

History in Europe

Family names in today's sense have developed from bynames, which were initially only given to individual persons, but were not yet passed on to subsequent persons. In the 9th century, a byname was first inherited in Venice. This custom spread from there to northern Italy and southern France in the 10th century. In the 11th century the use reached Catalonia and northern France, and in the 12th century England and the territory of Switzerland. Thereafter, the use of a permanent surname became common in western and southern German towns as well. At the beginning of the 15th century surnames were found everywhere in the German-speaking area, but not consistently. Also, the family name could still change, for example when moving away or due to new occupation or until about 1800 when marrying into a farm.

While the nobility carried fixed surnames since the hereditary nature of the fiefs in 1037 in order to be able to assert their hereditary claims, the patricians and townspeople only followed later. Particularly in the patriciate, the preservation of family property still contributed to the formation of fixed surnames, while in the rest of the bourgeoisie the formation of surnames was promoted above all by the development of the administrative system with increasing written documentation. Until the 18th century the family name had mostly only a subordinate meaning, while the call name remained the actual name. Rural areas managed without a fixed surname until the 17th or 18th century, in Friesland it was not introduced by law until the 19th century.

Through emigration, surnames can also spread to regions and language areas that are far away from the place of origin of the name.

Derivation of family names

Most surnames are derived from:

• from professional and official titles (professional name)
• from the father's first name (patronymic) or the mother's first name (metronymic)
• of characteristics of the person (nickname)
• the geographical origin (name of origin)
• of special features of the residence (residence name)

For explanation, please refer to the linked articles.

An overview of the origin of German surnames can also be found here.