Caliph

Caliph is the singularization of the Arabic term chalīfa (Arabic خليفة, DMG ḫalīfa pronunciation^{? /i}), which in a general sense denotes a deputy or successor, but is often used in a specific capacity as a title for religious-political leaders. When it is used as shorthand for the expressions chalīfat Allāh (deputy of God / خليفة الله / ḫalīfat Allāh) or chalīfat rasūl Allāh (successor of the Messenger of God / خليفة رسول الله / ḫalīfat rasūl Allāh), then it is usually associated with the claim to leadership of the entire Islamic community. In addition, however, the title of caliph also exists in Sufi orders and in the Ahmadiyya. In these contexts, the title of caliph indicates that the person in question is to be regarded as the successor and deputy of the specific founder of the order or community.

This article deals with the history of the title of caliph; for information on the political history of the various caliphates, see the article Caliphate.

Origin of the title of caliph

The noun chalīfa is derived from the Arabic verb chalafa (خَلَفَ), meaning "to follow, to take the place". The derived abstract chilāfa (خلافة / ḫilāfa) means "substitution, succession, caliphate".

The term chalīfa already appears in pre-Islamic Arabia, in an Arabic inscription from the year 543, in which it refers to a kind of viceroy who performs the duties of another sovereign. In the Koran the term occurs in two places: In one (Sura 2:30) it refers to Adam, who is appointed by God as "governor" on earth; in the other (Sura 38:26) it is used for David in his capacity as ruler and judge:

The development of the term in early Islam is illuminating in a report handed down by various Arab writers. According to this account, when Abu Bakr became the head of the Muslim community after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, he was called chalīfat rasūl Allāh ("successor of the Messenger of God"). When Umar ibn al-Chattab succeeded him as head of the Muslims, a man addressed him as chalīfat Allāh, but Umar rejected this, saying that this title was reserved for David. When the man then addressed him as chalīfat rasūl Allāh, Umar also refused, arguing that this title belonged to Abu Bakr alone. Umar considered the title chalīfat chalīfat rasūl Allāh ("successor of the successor of the Messenger of God"), which the man then used, to be correct, but objected that this would make the title longer and longer. As an alternative to this long title, he urged the believers to call him amīr al-muʾminīn ("ruler of the believers").

The title chalīfat Allāh ("Vicar of God"), which made a much broader claim than chalīfat rasūl Allāh, is attested for the first time for Umar's successor Uthman ibn Affan (644-656). However, this term appears only in panegyric poems. The first Muslim ruler to use the term in inscriptions and on coins, and thus in an official context, was the Umayyad Abd al-Malik (685-705). Later, the Abbasids (750-1517) and, for a time, the Spanish Umayyads (929-1031), the Fatimids (909-1171), the Almohads (1147-1269), and the Hafsids (1229-1574) also claimed the title of caliph.

Selection and designation of the caliph

Already under the first three caliphs, three very different selection procedures were used. Abū Bakr, who was addressed by the title "Ruler of the Faithful" (Amīr al-Mu'minīn), was appointed caliph by acclamation after considerable dispute. Before his death, he designated ʿUmar as his successor. The latter, in turn, had a body of six members formed to appoint one of their number as his successor as caliph. Based on the assassination of the third caliph ʿUthmān, discussions arose as to whether a caliph could be deposed. The Kharijites were in favor of deposing the caliph.

The Umayyads, however, were of the opposite opinion and established for the first time a dynastic principle that required unconditional obedience of the subjects. To this end, they drafted a new doctrine that contradicted the view of the nature of the caliph practiced before them. The caliph was no longer to be the deputy of the Prophet (chalīfat rasūl Allāh) but the deputy of God (chalīfat Allāh). Formally, there was still some elective character, but the selection was limited to the sons of the Umayyad ruler, as well as his paternal brothers and cousins. The Umayyads emphasized both their genealogical descent from ʿUthmān and an "inheritance from Muhammad" in order to legitimize the dynastic rule of the caliph.

The Abbasid dynasty, which followed the Umayyads, proclaimed other criteria that would entitle them to the title of caliph. Accordingly, membership of the Prophet's family determined the legitimacy of the caliph's rule. The Abbasid caliphs also saw themselves as God's representatives and called themselves "God's power on earth" (Sultān Allāh fī ardihī). The ruler names they adopted, the use of the title "Imam," and the use of religiously significant insignia and relics were intended to emphasize their direct relationship with God and the religious significance of their caliphate. These efforts at legitimization are attributed in no small part to the fact that the Abbasids did not provide the only caliphate in the Islamic world at the time. The Abbasid rulers often appointed their successors, and in some cases their successors, by will. The prerequisite for this was that the candidate was of age. In the event that no successor was appointed by the deceased predecessor, a committee of religious and state dignitaries decided on the future ruler.