Biome: major ecological divisions of Earth’s landscapes and waters

Structure and characteristic features

A biome typically encompasses several ecoregions and many local ecosystems. Identification often relies on the dominant vegetation type (trees, grasses, shrubs, or non-vascular plants) and on resident fauna, but soils (including soils and their development), climate patterns and seasonal rhythms are equally important. The biodiversity of a biome reflects interactions among these abiotic factors and the net primary production and biomass supported by the dominant plants. In general, warmer and wetter biomes tend to support greater species richness, while cold or arid biomes harbor species adapted to stress and low productivity. Temperature and moisture regimes, including extremes and seasonality, help shape community composition and ecosystem processes such as decomposition and nutrient cycling; for example, mean temperature and precipitation patterns are key determinants of forest type versus grassland or desert.

Major categories and regional names

Biomes are frequently grouped into terrestrial and aquatic systems. Terrestrial biomes include forests (tropical, temperate, boreal), grasslands, deserts and tundra; aquatic biomes comprise marine and freshwater types such as coral reefs, kelp forests, rivers and lakes. Local or historical names reflect cultural and regional usage: the temperate grassland known as steppe in Central Asia, the savanna or open field of parts of southern Africa, the prairie of North America, the pampa of South America, and the outback or coastal scrub in Australia. These names reflect local climates, soils and land-use histories even when they correspond to the same broad biome type.

Origins of the concept and mapping

The biome concept grew from 19th- and 20th-century efforts to classify vegetation and climate at continental scales and has since been refined by remote sensing, biogeography and ecosystem ecology. Modern biome maps combine satellite observations of land cover with climate data and field-based inventories to delineate patterns useful for research and conservation. Biome classifications vary depending on purpose: some emphasize vegetation form, others function (such as productivity or carbon storage) or evolutionary history.

Dynamics, human influence and conservation

Biomes are dynamic over time. Natural disturbances (fire, storms, flooding), long-term climate variability and human activities (land conversion, grazing, pollution) can shift boundaries, alter structure and reduce native biodiversity. Transitional areas between biomes—ecotones—often host high diversity but are sensitive to change. Because entire biomes can contain many endemic species and critical ecological processes, conservation planning sometimes targets biome-scale protection and restoration under national and international biodiversity strategies. Understanding both large-scale patterns and local variation within biomes is essential for land management, restoration ecology, sustainable resource use and anticipating ecological responses to climate change.

Applications and distinctions

Biomes provide a practical framework for comparing ecosystems, guiding conservation priorities and linking biological patterns to climate and biogeochemical cycles. They are distinct from related terms: an "ecosystem" focuses on processes and interactions at a given place and scale, while an "ecoregion" is a more specific geographic subdivision; a "biome" groups areas with broadly similar climate and life-form characteristics. Researchers, land managers and educators use biome concepts to inform protected-area design, agriculture suited to regional conditions, carbon accounting and biodiversity monitoring.

Further reading

• Ecology overview
• Ecoregion mapping
• Biodiversity and biomes
• Biomass and productivity
• Climate influences