Xiongnu

Xiōngnú (Chinese 匈奴, W.-G. Hsiung-nu) is the Chinese name for a tribal federation of equestrian nomads that controlled much of eastern Central Asia between the 3rd century BC and the late 1st century AD. The Xiongnu Empire was the earliest and at the same time the longest-lived steppe empire.

The Xiongnu were first mentioned in Chinese sources in 215 BC, when the first emperor Shihuangdi ordered an offensive against them. In this context, it should be noted that the term Xiongnu in the Chinese sources apparently did not refer to a firmly defined, homogeneous group, but was rather a collective term for heterogeneously composed groups in the steppe area of present-day Mongolia.

For a long time, the Xiongnu were able to hold their own against the Han dynasty. At times, since military action was not always successful, Chinese emperors tried to appease the Xiongnu through payments and gifts in connection with marriage contracts (the so-called heqin policy). Economically, the Xiongnu basically needed Chinese tribute, as their own way of life did not provide a sufficient material basis. In this sense, the Xiongnu were dependent on the economic prosperity of the Han Empire.

Eventually, there were signs of disintegration within the tribal confederation. The southern part of the Xiongnu submitted to the Chinese in the middle of the 1st century AD and thus came under Chinese protectorate; the northern part of the Xiongnu came under increased Chinese pressure at the end of the 1st century and was finally annihilated by Han troops and their allies; the last reports of them date from the middle of the 2nd century. The Southern Xiongnu group, settled in Chinese territory, rose up against the Jin dynasty in the early 4th century and established the short-lived Han Zhao dynasty and the later Zhao dynasty.

In Europe, the term Huns was sometimes used for the Xiongnu, as older research assumed a connection between these two groups. The ethnicity of the Xiongnu is disputed in research. In more recent historical and archaeological research, Huns and Xiongnu are generally no longer equated, which is also justified by the fact that the early nomadic peoples were tribal confederations that were composed of various ethnic and cultural groupings and, depending on the situation, organized, separated, and reorganized themselves into rudimentary ruling systems (cf. on empire building among early nomadic peoples). In this context, the temporal difference also speaks against a connection between the Xiongnu and the Huns, and archaeological evidence is also lacking.

On the basis of the currently available findings, the ethnic classification of the (probably heterogeneously composed) Xiongnu cannot be clarified beyond doubt. In addition to a linguistic classification as Altaic-speaking (Turkic languages, Mongolian) or Iranian-speaking, it is assumed, especially in recent research, that the Xiongnu spoke several languages, including, among others, a Yenisean language (Ketish) or an extinct language that does not belong to any of the currently known language families of Eurasia.

Material culture

Archaeology attributes to the Xiongnu a culture spread over a wide area from Transbaikalia to Inner Mongolia from about 200 BC, which replaced the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age slab grave culture. The population, as bone finds show, had both European and Mongolian elements. Important sites are the Ivolginsk ring wall settlement on the Selenga and Noin Ula in Mongolia. The finds show relations to China as well as to the upper reaches of the Yenisei, to the Tes stage and to the Tashtyk culture.

The pottery of the Xiongu was already produced on the potter's wheel and is quite uniform in the wide distribution area. There are tall, slender vessels with narrow necks, conical bowls and deep bowls with vertical tops and outstretched, wide rims. The pottery shows smooth stripe patterns, incised bands and various stripe patterns as ornamentation.

The Xiongnu had advanced weaponry, notably composite bows and iron scale armor. In addition to weapons, various utensils, tools, horse harness and costume jewellery were also made of iron. Among the latter are belt buckles, belt plates with figural representations and strap tongues.

Contrary to ancient Chinese lore, the Xiongnu were by no means predominantly nomads. In Baikal in particular, numerous proto-urban settlements, very often fortified by ramparts, are known. In them pit houses (polusemljanki) and ground-level post buildings were found.

The economy consisted of both livestock, especially dog, sheep, goat, cattle and pig, and agriculture. The Xiongnu apparently used booty and Chinese tribute as economic aid and to bind warriors to their leaders. In this respect, they remained dependent on the material influx from China.

The last finds that can be attributed to the Xiongnu date back to the time around 100 A.D. Until the 5th century the northern area remains largely without finds, in Inner and Outer Mongolia there are subsequently finds of the Xianbei that show clear relations to the culture of the Xiongnu.